The Years Work In English Studies Volume XXXV 1954

820.9

v.55,

57-00236

reference
collection
book

kansas city
public library
kansas city,
missouri

THE

YEAR'S WORK IN
ENGLISH STUDIES

VOLUME XXXV

1954

EDITED BY

BEATRICE WHITE

D.LIT., F.S.A., F.R.HiST.8., RR.S.L.

Publishedfor
THE ENGLISH ASSOCIATION

by

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

1956

Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C.4

GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON

BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI
CAPE TOWN JBADAN NAIROBI ACCRA SINGAPORE

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C.4

GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON

BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI
CAPE TOWN IBADAN NAIROBI ACCRA SINGAPORE

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

PREFACE

THE scheme of The Year's Work in English Studies was originally
planned in 1914, but the outbreak of war delayed the publication of
Volume I till 1921. From the publication of the second volume until the
present Professor F. S. Boas carried out the duties first of associate
editor to Sir Sidney Lee and then of editor. For some thirty years he has
devoted himself with tireless energy and ardour through the major diffi-
culties of the Second World War to the responsibilities of assembling
and encouraging a team of scholars competent to produce an authorita-
tive statement on the annual work in the many fields of English studies.
All who use the book which is the fruit of his labours, and to which he
himself was a leading contributor, and all who, as colleagues, have been
associated with him, owe him a lasting debt of gratitude for long and
enthusiastic service. It will be the concern of the present editor to pre-
serve the tradition which he established.

Traditions do not imply change, but there are some changes to record.
Professor Boas's place as a contributor was taken at very short notice by
Mr. Arthur Brown of University College, The chief innovation this year
is a new chapter on American Literature contributed, again at very short
notice, by Mr. Marcus Cunliffe of Manchester University. Both are wel-
come new-comers to the team.

With regard to the volume itself, certain alterations have been made
to the layout which it is hoped will meet with general approval The type
is slightly smaller and much space has been saved.

Every effort has been made to discover book prices and these are
stated wherever possible. It would be appreciated if offprints from
periodical publications could be sent to the Office of the English Asso-
ciation for distribution to the individual contributors.

BEATRICE WHITE

1956

ABBREVIATIONS

AL American Literature

Am Sp American Speech

Archiv Archiv fur das Studium der Neueren Sprachen

Arch Ling Archivum Linguisticum

BC The Book Collector

BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library

BMQ British Museum Quarterly

Comp Lit Comparative Literature

DUJ Durham University Journal

EETS Early English Text Society
E and G Stud English and Germanic Studies

Eng Journ English Journal

ELH Journal of English Literary History

Eng Stud English Studies

Ess Crit Essays in Criticism

ES Essays and Studies

fitud ang Etudes anglaises

HLB Harvard Library Bulletin

HLQ Huntington Library Quarterly

JEGP Journal of English and Germanic Philology

JHI Journal of the History of Ideas

JWCI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes

Lang Language

Med JEv Medium ^Evum

MLN Modern Language Notes

MLQ Modern Language Quarterly

MLR Modern Language Review

M(od) P(hil) Modem Philology

Neophil Neophilologus

NM Neuphilologische Mitteilungen

NEQ New England Quarterly

NCF Nineteenth Century Fiction

NQ Notes and Queries

PQ Philological Quarterly

PBSA Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America

Proc Brit Ac Proceedings of the British Academy

PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Associa-
tion of America

Ren News Renaissance News

RES Review of English Studies

R.SX. Royal Society of Literature

Sh J(ahr) Shakespeare Jahrbuch

SNL Shakespeare Newsletter

Sh Q Shakespeare Quarterly
Sh S , Shakespeare Survey

S.T.C. Short Title Catalogue

Spec Speculum

ABBREVIATIONS

Stud Neoph Studia Neophilologica

SB Studies in Bibliography

S in E(ng) Studies in English

S (in) P(h) Studies in Philology

TLS Times Literary Supplement

Trans Phil Soc Transactions of the Philological Society

UTQ University of Toronto Quarterly

YDS Transactions of the Yorkshire Dialect Society

YW The Year's Work in English Studies

CONTENTS

I. LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM: GENERAL

WORKS 9

By T. S. DORSCH, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature in the
University of London (Westfield College)

II. ENGLISH LANGUAGE: GENERAL WORKS 27

By R. M. WILSON, M.A., Professor of English Language in the
University of Sheffield

III. OLD ENGLISH 38

By R. M. WILSON

IV. MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER 45

By B. L TIMMER, PH.D., Reader in English Language in the
University of London (Queen Mary College)

V. MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER 55

By JOYCE BAZIRE, M.A., Lecturer in English Language and
Literature in the University of Liverpool

VI. THE RENAISSANCE 67

By WILLIAM A. ARMSTRONG, M.A., PH.D., Lecturer in English

Literature in the University of London (King's College)

VII. SHAKESPEARE 79

By T. S. DORSCH

VIII. LATER ELIZABETHAN AND EARLY STUART DRAMA 105

By ARTHUR BROWN, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature in
the University of London (University College)

IX. LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 117

By ARNOLD DAVENPORT, M.A., Andrew Cecil Bradley Senior
Lecturer in English in the University of Liverpool

X, EARLIER STUART AND THE COMMONWEALTH

PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 127

By ARNOLD DAVENPORT

XL RESTORATION PERIOD 145

By V. DE SOLA PINTO, M.A., D.PHIL., F.R.S.L., Professor of
English Literature in the University of Nottingham

XII. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 156

By EDITH J. MORLEY, O.B.E., M.A., F.R.S.L., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of English Language in the University of Reading

8 CONTENTS

XIII. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 180

(a) BOOKS, by GEOFFREY BULLOUGH, M.A., F.R.S.L., Pro-
fessor of English Language and Literature in the Univer-
sity of London (King's College)

(b) PERIODICALS, by P. M. YARKER, M.A., Lecturer in 196
English Literature in the University of London (King's
College)

XIV. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 211

By M ARJORIE THOMPSON, M.A., Lecturer in English Litera-
ture in the University of London (Queen Mary College)

XV. AMERICAN LITERATURE 226

By MARCUS CUNLIFFE, M.A., Senior Lecturer in American
Studies in the University of Manchester

XVI. BIBLIOGRAPHICA 241

By JOHN CROW, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature in the
University of London (King's College)

INDEXES

I. AUTHORS 255

II. SELECTED SUBJECTS 262

III. SUBJECTS TREATED 264

By P. M. YARKER

I. LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM:
GENERAL WORKS

By T. S, DORSCH

1. Reference-Works and Histories of
Literature

OF the general reference-works to be
noticed, the most useful is the revised
Everyman's Dictionary of Dates, 1 a
compact volume which provides about
40,000 dates 'covering all important
world events from earliest times to the
present day'. Wherever possible the
compilers have sensibly grouped their
dates under comprehensive headings;
authors, for instance, are listed under
the languages in which they wrote, so
that it is easy to compare their dates
without vexatious turning of pages. As
a whole the work is astonishingly in-
clusive, and it will undoubtedly be of
great service to scholars.

Antony Brett-James's The Triple
Stream 2 tabulates in parallel columns
the principal literary works, over the
past four centuries, of British, French,
and German writers. For each year
from 1531 to 1930 are listed the au-
thors who were born or died in that
year, and the titles of its notable
writings not merely those which are
generally accepted as great literature,
but also famous children's books,
reference books, influential technical
works, and the like. It is thus possible
to see at a glance what was going on
in the three countries in any particular
period.

The title of Drury's Guide to Best

1 Everyman's Dictionary of Dates, com-
piled by C. Arnold-Baker and Anthony
Dent. Revised edition. London: Dent.
New York : Dutton. pp. xxiv+404. 15s.

2 The Triple Stream: Four Centuries of
English, French and German Literature,
1531-1930, by Antony Brett-James. Bowes
& Bowes (1953). pp.x+178. Us. 6d.

Plays 3 is misleading. In this work some
1,200 plays, under authors alphabeti-
cally arranged, are described in sum-
maries varying in length from two or
three to about a dozen lines. Some
notion of Drury's standards may be
gained from the fact that Shakespeare
is allowed to have written sixteen of
the 'best plays', and Rachel Crothers
eleven; Aeschylus two, and Maxwell
Anderson fourteen.

Altogether less pretentious, since it
claims only to be 'a personal selection',
is F. Seymour Smith's What Shall I
Read Next?, 4 which is described as a
companion volume to the compiler's
previous work, An English Library.
Excluding everything that has already
been recommended in An English
Library, it lists and classifies about
two thousand English books published
since 1900, in most cases adding short
descriptive or critical comments. Fic-
tion looms large; literary criticism is
very poorly represented, and the bio-
graphical section, too, among others,
is decidedly thin. No doubt this volume
and Drury's Guide will somewhere be
found useful, but it is difficult to see
for what kind of reader they are de-
signed.

Among the histories of English
literature the outstanding work is C. S.
Lewis's erudite and engrossing English

3 Drury's Guide to Best Plays, by F. K. W.
Drury. Washington, D.C. : Scarecrow Press
(1953). London: Bailey Bros. & Swinfen.
pp. 367. 585. 6d.

4 What Shall I Read Next? A Personal
Selection of Twentieth Century English
Books, by F. Seymour Smith. C.U.P., for
the National Book League (1953). pp. viii
+232. 105. 6d.

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

10

Literature in the Sixteenth Century. 5
It can, however, receive only a passing
mention here, since it is fully noticed
in Chapters VI and IX.

A welcome new edition of Legouis
and Cazamian's History of English
Literature 6 has appeared. Minor revi-
sions have been made throughout, the
bibliographies have been brought up to
date, and the history has been carried
forward to 1950 by the rewriting and
rearrangement of the last few chapters.

The second volume of A. C. Ward's
Illustrated History of English Litera-
ture, 1 covering the period between Ben
Jonson and Samuel Johnson, follows
the pattern of the previous volume.
Neither profound enough nor compre-
hensive enough for the serious student,
it communicates the author's enjoy-
ment in writing it, and will give plea-
sure, and some profit, to the general
reader for whom it is designed. How-
ever, it is not always reliable; nor is it
well proportioned. Ward seems hap-
pier in the eighteenth century, and
here the work is more balanced and
generally more satisfactory. Once
again Elizabeth Williams is to be com-
mended for her excellent choice of
illustrations.

Penguin Books have issued the first
instalment of a seven- volume Guide to
English Literature. Entitled The Age
of Chaucer? it presents 'a series of es-
says on the literature and background

5 English Literature in the Sixteenth Cen-
tury, excluding Drama, by C. S. Lewis.
(Oxford History of English Literature, vol.
iii). O.U.P. pp. vii-j-696. 30$.

6 A History of English Literature, by
fimile Legouis and Louis Cazamian. Revised
Edition. Dent. pp. xxiii-f-1427. 185.

7 Illustrated History of English Literature.
Volume Two: Ben Jonson to Samuel John-
son, by A. C. Ward. Longmans, pp. ix-f
261. 25s.

8 The Age of Chaucer: Volume I of a
Guide to English Literature, ed. by Boris
Ford. With an Anthology of Medieval
Poems. Penguin Books, pp. 491. 3s. 6d.
[5s.]

of the period from Chaucer to Spen-
ser.' General surveys of medieval
verse and prose are provided by John
Speirs and A. I. Doyle, and the other
contributors, each of whom writes
about a particular author or work, are
David Holbrook, Derek Traversi,
Francis Berry, M. J. C. Hodgart, Pat-
rick Cruttwell, L. A. Cormican, D. W.
Harding, and Nikolaus Pevsner. Only
such works as the editor thinks likely
to appeal to the uncultivated but in-
terested general reader are treated at
any length; Gower, Skelton, More,
Malory, and Sidney are among the
authors who are mentioned only in
passing in the survey chapters. Far the
most valuable section is an admirable
medieval anthology of 200 pages
edited by Francis Berry, which gives
several works complete, including Sir
Orfeo, Sir Gawayne and the Grene
Knight, and two Miracle Plays, and
sizeable extracts from other poems.
Margaret Tubb provides a useful bib-
liography. (See Chapter V, n. 5.)

Henry Ltideke's Die Englische
Literatur, 9 an outline history, is too
short to be able to offer much in the
way of criticism; the whole of Old
English literature, for instance, is
passed in review in seven pages, and
apart from passing references Shake-
speare receives two pages. The chief
merit of the work is that to some ex-
tent it relates the literary works dis-
cussed to the historical and social
background of the ages in which they
were written.

In The Literature of the United
States 10 Marcus Cunliff e treats Ameri-
can literature as something which has
a right to be considered on its own
merits, and not as a mere derivative of

9 Die Englische Literatur: Ein Kultur-
historischer Umriss, von Henry Ltideke.
(Dalp-Taschenbiicher.) Bern : Francke Ver-
lag. pp. 135. Sw. Fr. 2.80.

10 The Literature of the United States, by
Marcus Cunliffe. Penguin Books, pp. 384.
3*. 6d.

GENERAL WORKS

11

English literature. Writing for English
readers, he wisely concentrates on
major authors, his treatment of whom
is discerning and balanced, and judi-
ciously illustrated with quotation.
Especially valuable are the chapters
on the distinguished American writers
of the last three or four decades in
which the transatlantic exchange of
ideas and influences is shown to be
anything but a one-way traffic. For
those who want to read more widely
about American literature, Cunliffe
provides a very helpful bibliography.
The history of a period will consist
in the tracing of the changes from one
system of norms to another.' Quoting
these words from Wellek and War-
ren's Theory of Literature, the editor
of Transitions in American Literary
History 11 explains that the purpose of
this work is to concentrate on the 'in-
between' periods of American litera-
ture, and to trace the changes 'in some-
thing like a cause-and-eff ect sequence
from one period to another'. Impor-
tant differences in literary outlook are
often, however, brought about pre-
dominantly by the influence of gifted
individuals or groups, and in dealing
with periods of transition the contri-
butors to this volume necessarily de-
vote a good deal of space to major
writers, in aspects of their work which
are rarely given much consideration.
With emphasis on the processes of
change, Clarence H. Faust writes on
The Decline of Puritanism'; Leon
Howard on The Late Eighteenth Cen-
tury: An Age of Contradictions'; M. F.
Heiser on The Decline of Neoclassi-
cism, 1801-1848'; G. Harrison Orians,
on The Rise of Romanticism, 1805-
1855'; Alexander Kern on The Rise
of Transcendentalism, 1815-1860';

11 Transitions in American Literary His-
tory, ed. by Harry Hayden Clark for the
American Literature Group of the Modern
Language Association. Duke U.P. C.U.P.
pp. xv +479. 45,y.

Floyd Stovall on The Decline of
Romantic Idealism, 1855-1871'; and
Robert Falk on The Rise of Realism,
1871-1891'.

A place must be found in this chap-
ter for the excellent hundred-page
special section devoted to American
writing today in the TLS of 17 Septem-
ber. In about fifty articles, some of
fairly considerable length, almost all
recent trends in American literature
are passed in review, emphasis being
laid on its vigour and originality. Of
particular value for English readers
are the columns given to the work of
the American critics of the last two
or three decades, whose books can
scarcely be said to be widely known
in this country. Special interests in
American literature and thought are
catered for in other articles, and there
is a generous selection of poems by
the new American poets.

2. General Criticism and Collections
of Essays

DeDescriptione Temporum 12 is C. S.
Lewis's inaugural lecture as Professor
of Medieval and Renaissance Litera-
ture at Cambridge. The title of this
most interesting lecture is taken from
the heading of a chapter in Isidore's
Etymologiarum in which Isidore
divides history, as he knew it, into
periods. With a reminder that the bar-
rier between the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance 'has been greatly exag-
gerated, if indeed it was not largely
a figment of Humanist propaganda',
Lewis sets out to determine where we
are to place 'the greatest change in the
history of Western Man'. He considers
the 'massive and multiple change*
brought about by the transition from
Antiquity to the Dark Ages; the 'wide-
spread and brilliant improvement' that
came about when the Dark passed into

12 De Descriptione Temporum: An In-
augural Lecture, by C. S. Lewis. C.U.P.
(1955). pp. 23. 2s. 6d.

12

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

the Middle Ages; and the opening up
of a new intellectual world near the
end of the seventeenth century. Finally
he turns to the changes in man's intel-
lectual and spiritual equipment in the
last century and a half. During this
period the organization of mass ex-
citement has become 'almost the nor-
mal organ of political power'; changes
of an unprecedented nature and extent
have taken place in the arts; the 'un-
christening' of the western world has
brought about a vaster change than
that which Europe underwent at its
conversion; and lastly, the machines
have been born, a development which
is 'parallel to the great changes by
which we divide epochs of pre-history',
akin to 'the change from stone to
bronze, or from a pastoral to an agri-
cultural economy. It alters man's place
in nature.' It is approximately in the
age of Jane Austen and Scott, then,
that Lewis would put 'the Great
Divide'.

The Development of English Hu-
mor by Louis Cazamian, gives the
lie to those who believe that English
humour is something that the English
alone can understand, for Cazamian's
treatment is as subtly perceptive as it
is all-embracing. Part I of this admir-
able study, covering the Old and
Middle English periods, was published
in 1930, when it was noticed in YW
(vol. xi). The second, much more sub-
stantial part, now published in a single
volume with the first, carries the sur-
vey just beyond Restoration times. It
opens with the writers of the early six-
teenth century, and here Cazamian
perhaps somewhat undervalues the
humour of Sir Thomas More; but he
brings out well the 'increasing vitality'
of English humour as the century
draws towards its close, especially in
the writings of the University Wits.

:3 The Development of English Humor,
Parts I and II, by Louis Cazamian. Duke
U.P. (1952). C.U.P. pp. ix+421. $6. 45s.

The core of the volume lies in the
three excellent chapters on Shake-
speare. In penetrating analyses Caza-
mian distinguishes all the different
components of Shakespeare's humour,
the farcical, the satirical, the ironic,
the sardonic, the gay, the serene; and
'in its clinging to balance as in its ad-
venturous spirit' he sees it as an 'out-
standingly national' humour. He shows
too how Shakespeare, resisting any
temptation he might have felt to keep
his comedy on the plane of farce or of
light satire, 'developed with an almost
unerring aim towards an inspiration
drawn from the most genuine sources,
those of nature and truth'; his humour
'at its best is indistinguishable from his
wisdom'. With the other Elizabethan
dramatists, and with seventeenth-cen-
tury writers in general, Cazamian deals
in more summary fashion; however,
he relates the quality of their humour
to the social and intellectual back-
ground of the times in which they
wrote, and the later sections of the
book are marked by the same under-
standing and good sense as the earlier.
'Inductive formal analysis' is the
name that Paul Goodman gives to the
critical method which he describes and
illustrates in The Structure of Litera-
ture. 14 c The formal analysis of a poem',
he says, 'is largely the demonstration
of a probability through all the parts.'
The structure of a poem 'poem' is
Goodman's generic name for works of
literature embraces not merely what
is conventionally termed the plot, but
all the parts: the character, the spec-
tacle, and the rhythm, diction, and
imagery. 'Any system of parts that
carries over, continuous and unchang-
ing, from the beginning to the end let
us call the "plot".' In a Shakespearian
play, for example, 'when several
characters independently and through-

14 The Structure of Literature, by Paul
Goodman. Univ. of Chicago Press. C.U.P.

pp, vii+282. 37.?. 6d.

GENERAL WORKS

13

out the play employ the same system of
images, the diction becomes an inde-
pendent part of the plot'. This critical
approach, to some extent combined
with that of Aristotle to questions of
plot, Goodman applies in turn to
'serious plots', illustrated by analyses of
Oedipus Rex, Philoctetes, and Richard
II; to 'comic plots', illustrated from
The Alchemist, I Henry IV, and Mac-
Flecknoe; to 'novelistic plots', illus-
trated fromL' 'Education Sentiment ale,
Hamlet, and Kafka's The Castle', and
to lyrical poems, illustrated from Catul-
lus's lam ver egelidos refert tepores',
and Milton's sonnet on his blindness.
Although his method leads Goodman
at times to disputable judgements
about the relative dramatic powers of
Sophocles and Shakespeare, for ex-
ample it also produces some illumin-
ating criticism; it is especially reward-
ing when it is applied to the comedies
and the lyrical poems that he discusses.
In The Broken Cistern 15 are pub-
lished the Clark Lectures for 1952-3
which Bonamy Dobre*e delivered under
the title 'Public Themes in English
Poetry'. Dobree suggests that 'poetry
does not fulfil its great civilising func-
tion unless it is suffused with, or at
least supported by, some great accep-
ted theme'. One of the reasons why
poetry is not much read today is that
contemporary poets show little con-
cern with outlooks and ways of thought
that are of fundamental and universal
interest. In the first two lectures
Dobree shows how Stoicism has until
recently been one of the 'perpetually
underlying attitudes' of English poetry,
as much in the Romantic as in the
Elizabethan period; Wordsworth, in-
deed, gave a new vitality to this atti-
tude.. The subject of the next two lec-
tures is 'Scientism'. Many poets have
embodied scientific ideas in their verse,

J 5 The Broken Cistern: The Clark Lee-
tures, 1952-53, by Bonamy Dobree. Cohen
& West. pp. ix+158. 125. 6d.

but 'what is important to poets is when
scientific discoveries really affect the
mind of man in his daily vision, and
thus fertilise his imagination', as hap-
pened on a large scale in the early
eighteenth century with the discoveries
of Newton and his near-contempor-
aries. There is little sign of such an
imaginative use today of the notions
of contemporary science. Similarly, as
Dobree claims in the last two lectures,
Patriotism no longer plays a signifi-
cant part in the work of our poets.
Have we not, in the words of the pro-
phet Jeremiah, 'forsaken the fountain
of living waters, and made ourselves
cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold
no water'?

G. M. Trevelyan's Clark Lectures for
1953 have also been published, under
the title A Layman's Love of Letters. 16
Among the topics that Trevelyan
discusses are the Ballads, the artistry
of A. E. Housman and of Browning,
translation, book illustration, and the
effects that may be gained by the use
of place-names in poetry. The unify-
ing thread of the series may be found
in his warning that we must not allow
our literary opinions to be moulded
by the critics. In this connexion, he
draws attention to some of Matthew
Arnold's blind spots as a critic, and
defends Kipling against the strictures
of Raymond Mortimer and Scott
against those of E. M. Forster. In the
final lecture Trevelyan offers some
fresh criticism of Meredith, devoting
himself largely to his poetry.

In the belief that Ezra Pound's liter-
ary criticism is 'the most important
literary criticism of its kind', T. S.
Eliot has edited a selection of critical
essays 17 written by Pound over a period

16 A Layman's Love of Letters (The Clark
Lectures, Cambridge, 1953), by G. M.
Trevelyan, O.M. Longmans, pp. vi+125.
lls.6d.

17 Literary Essays of Ezra Pound) ed. with
an Introduction by T. S. Eliot. Faber.
pp. xv+464. 30s.

14

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

of some thirty years. These include the
'Retrospect' in which Pound formu-
lated the poetic principles of the Ima-
gistes, 'How to Read 5 , and The Serious
Artist' ; the essays, or rather jottings, on
the Troubadors, Elizabethan Classi-
cists, and early translators of Homer;
the studies of Henry James and Remy
de Gourmont; and numerous reviews
and short articles on writers of the past
and present. It is when he is speaking
of first or early works by his gifted
contemporaries Yeats, Ford Madox
Ford, Robert Frost, D. H. Lawrence,
Joyce, Eliot, Wyndham Lewis that
Pound most clearly reveals his origin-
ality and discernment as a critic. It
would be difficult to print any sizeable
selection of Pound's criticism without
a good many manifestations of his
hatred for the Victorians, or for Mil-
ton; but on the whole Eliot avoids the
reproduction of his most wilfully per-
verse judgements. If we make allow-
ance for his insistent desire to provoke
and shock, we may, on the showing of
this selection, agree with Eliot that
'Pound has said much about the art of
writing, and of writing poetry in par-
ticular, that is permanently valid and
useful.*

As the title may suggest, the central
theme of Martin Jarrett-Kerr' s admir-
able Studies in Literature and Belief*
is the effect that a writer's religious be-
lief may have upon his art upon the
way in which his imagination works,
or in which he conceives his characters
and their relationships. In an interest-
ing chapter on Caldercm, for example,
Jarrett-Kerr demonstrates, among
other things, that 'the weaknesses of
the endings in Calderon's plays are
dramatic weaknesses which grow out
of theological ones'; and he begins the
chapter on the Ballads with a discus-
sion of the extent to which Christian-

18 Studies in Literature and Belief, by
Martin Jarrett-Kerr, C. R. Rockliff. pp. xii
+203. 15s.

ity may be detected 'as a superimposi-
tion on the basically pagan character'
of the Ballad. But the book contains
also much excellent criticism that is
not strictly relevant to this approach,
and displays a sensitive concern with
problems of style and technique. In
addition to Calderon and the ballad-
writers, the authors studied in some
detail are Manzoni, Dostoevsky, and
Ramuz; and in a final chapter Kafka,
Graham Greene, and Mauriac are
among those whose treatment of reli-
gious themes is considered.

Five Gay ley Lectures 19 is a volume
published to commemorate the twen-
tieth anniversary of the foundation of
the Gayley Lectureship at the Univer-
sity of California in Berkeley. The sub-
ject of Walter Morris Hart's lecture is
Shakespeare's Use of Verse and Prose.
Confining himself to the four great
tragedies, Hart sets out to show that
Shakespeare habitually uses prose in
representing abnormal states of mind.
In Habits of the Ballad as Song, Ber-
trand Harris Bronson gives an admir-
able and well-documented account of
the transmission of folk-song and bal-
lad melodies. Leonard Bacon's lecture
is an enthusiastic tribute to the poetic
genius and the patriotism of Cam5es.
Benjamin Harrison Lehman's theme
is Comedy and Laughter, The vision
of comedy', he says, 'keeps its eye on
lovers, its foresight upon their pros-
perous mating and on implied procrea-
tion.' This somewhat restricted view
of comedy he exemplifies by reference
to a wide range of writers. He goes on
to discuss the part played in comedy
by a perception of the irrational and
the incongruous. In John Donne: Poet
to Priest, George Reuben Potter makes
interesting analyses of some of Donne's
early sermons in order to illustrate his
gradual development as a preacher,

19 Five Gayley Lectures: 1947-1954. (Ed.
by L. B. Bennion and G. R. Potter.) Univ.
of California Press, pp. xiii+126. SI. 50.

GENERAL WORKS

15

not only in style and in the ability to
adapt his matter to different congre-
gations, but also in 'his own inward
response to his priestly duties and
functions'.

In The Writer and his Craft are
brought together the twenty Hopwood
Lectures delivered at the University of
Michigan between 1932 and 1952. Carl
Van Doren and Robert Penn Warren
provide some stimulating criticism of
Benjamin Franklin and of the poetic
themes of Robert Frost, and from
Christopher Morley comes a lively
discussion of the wit and wisdom of
Don Marquis, the creator of archy and
mehitabel. Mary M. Colum makes per-
tinent and sometimes pungent com-
ments on several well-known modern
writers in drawing a distinction be-
tween the art of literature and the
trade of writing; Mark Van Doren
speaks of 'the possible importance of
poetry'; and John Crowe Ransom
makes a perceptive study of poetry as
primitive language. Among other in-
teresting contributions are a lecture on
the writer's responsibility by J. Donald
Adams, and F. O. Matthiessen's now
famous The Responsibilities of the
Critic.

The sumptuous volume of Studies
in Art and Literature 21 prepared in
honour of Belle da Costa Greene was
designed as a tribute to Miss Greene's
distinguished service as Director of
the Pierpont Morgan Library. Unhap-
pily Miss Greene died before it was
completed, but there can be no doubt
that she would have rejoiced in a work
which brings together so much fine
erudition from fifty-one well-known
American and European scholars, and
in so handsomely produced and so

20 The Writer and his Craft, being the
Hopwood Lectures, 2932-1952, ed. by
Roy W. Cowden. Univ. of Michigan Press.
O.U.P. pp. vii+297. $3. 74s.

21 Studies in Art and Literature for Belle
Da Costa Greene, ed. by Dorothy Miner.
Princeton U.P. pp. xviii+502. $25.

beautifully and lavishly illustrated a
volume. Many of the articles, particu-
larly those devoted to the visual arts,
have no place in this chapter, but a
few are relevant to it. Samuel C. Chew
sets Spenser's Pageant of the Seven
Deadly Sins against a background of
early pictorial representations of the
same theme in wall-paintings, illu-
minated manuscripts, tapestries, and
the like. Herbert Davis discusses the
relationship between various manu-
scripts of Swift's 'Directions to Ser-
vants'. Sir Shane Leslie describes the
fine collection of Swift manuscripts in
the Pierpont Morgan Library. And
the Earl of Ilchester gives an account
of his discovery, during the war, of
some pages torn from the last journals
of Horace Walpole; he prints these
pages, which concern monetary diffi-
culties of Charles James Fox, and also
a memorandum on Walpole's state-
ments from the third Lord Holland.
(See Chapter XII, n. 7.)

Estella Ruth Taylor bases her study 22
of the Irish literary revival of the 1 890s
and the early decades of this century
on what the members of the move-
ment have written about themselves
and their associates. Yeats, A. E. 9 Lady
Gregory, Moore, Joyce, Synge, and
Gogarty: these are the most consider-
able of the writers whose friendships
and rivalries are reconstructed in the
terms in which they themselves saw
them, and whose literary aims and
opinions are presented in their own
words, often drawn from little-known
sources. Of especial interest are the
pages devoted to Yeats's penetrating
influence on the Irish lyric, and to his
collaboration with Lady Gregory as
a playwright.

Fair Greece, Sad Relic? 3 by Terence

22 The Modern Irish Writers: Cross
Currents of Criticism, by Estella Ruth
Taylor. Lawrence : Univ. of Kansas Press,
pp. ix+176. $3.50.

23 Fair Greece, Sad Relic: Literary Phil-
helknism from Shakespeare to Byron, by

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

16

Spencer, is 'a survey of the literary
contacts between England and the
modern country of Greece during the
three centuries preceding the romantic
enthusiasm which greeted the Greek
national revival in the early nineteenth
century'. After the Turkish conquest in
1460, silence falls upon Greece as far
as western Europe is concerned. Spen-
cer traces the sixteenth-century revival
of interest brought about by trade con-
tacts and by religious ties and the in-
crease of classical learning. Not much
real knowledge of modern Greece is
shown in the literature of the sixteenth
and early seventeenth centuries, though
Milton, among other Englishmen, dis-
plays a deep concern over the enslave-
ment of the Greeks. In the eighteenth
century 'men of sensibility and men of
scholarship made the contemporary
situation in Greece familiar even to
magazine readers'; and at last 'the
arrival of Byron in Athens in 1809
brought an English poetical person-
ality of the first rank to a country
stirring itself for the second national
uprising'. Spencer's book is copiously
illustrated with extracts from the
writings of those who interpreted the
modern Greeks for the world of wes-
tern Europe.

Dorothy Brewster's East-West Pas-
sage, 24 a study of the influence of Rus-
sian literature on English and Ameri-
can writers, opens with an interesting
survey of English writings about Rus-
sia from the Elizabethans to Lewis
Carroll. However, in spite of the efforts
of isolated enthusiasts like Thomas
Budge Shaw, 'a really informed con-
cern with Russian letters' did not be-
gin until the outbreak of the Crimean
War. In the later nineteenth century
Russian literature was much trans-
Terence Spencer. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
pp. xi+312. 25s.

24 East-West Passage: A Study in Liter-
ary Relationships, by Dorothy Brewster.
Allen & Unwin. pp. 328. 21s.

lated, and much studied by discerning
andinfluentialcritics,includingArnold
and Howells, and Miss Brewster is
able to show Russian themes and Rus-
sian techniques in the work of a great
variety of modern authors.

Poetry, Politics and the English
Tradition, 25 L. C. Knights's Inaugural
Lecture as Winterstoke Professor of
English in the University of Bristol, is
very largely concerned with Shake-
speare, and is therefore noticed in
Chapter VII.

In Literature and Science 26 B. Ifor
Evans discusses the relationship that
has existed between science and litera-
ture at various times from the six-
teenth century to the present day. To
counteract the antagonism that has
grown up between scientists and men
of letters in the course of the last cen-
tury or so, Evans suggests, the 'new
humanism' should be based on 'the
frank admission that religion and
philosophy and science have their
place, and that literature cannot super-
sede them'.

Norman Davy's British Scientific
Literature in the Seventeenth Century 27
is an interesting and useful little vol-
ume. In his Introduction Davy outlines
the contributions made to the various
branches of scientific thought by both
scientists and virtuosi. The greater part
of the book is given to excerpts from
their writings; and these are followed
by an Appendix on the attitude to-
wards science of contemporary men of
letters, from Jonson to Dryden, and
by a bibliography of modern works
which go more deeply into the subject.

Harold Fisch opens his interesting

25 Poetry, Politics and the English Tradi-
tion, by L. C. Knights. Chatto & Windus.
pp. 32. 2s. 6d.

26 Literature and Science, by B. Ifor
Evans. Allen & Unwin. pp.114. 8s. 6d.

27 British Scientific Literature in the
Seventeenth Century, by Norman Davy.
(Life, Literature, and Thought Library.)
Harrap. pp.244. 1s.6d.

GENERAL WORKS

17

paper on Alchemy and English Litera-
ture (Proc Leeds Philosophical Soc,
1953) by defining the aims and methods
of the alchemists, a sensible precau-
tion, since the frequency with which
their practices have been satirized has
led to widespread misunderstanding.
Turning to the treatment of alchemy
in literature, Fisch divides his material
into three parts. First, there is the
poetry of the alchemists themselves,
exemplified in Elias Ashmole's collec-
tion, Theatrum Chemicum Britanni-
cum. Next there is much literature,
from Chaucer to Ben Jonson, in which
the practical absurdities of alchemy
are held up to ridicule. And finally
there is a good deal of poetry, particu-
larly that of the Metaphysical poets
and the Cambridge Platonists, in which
alchemical notions are used signifi-
cantly and effectively. The work of
Henry Vaughan is notable in this re-
spect. In twentieth-century poetry, too,
there is sometimes 'a tendency to con-
ceive modern technical processes in
terms of images which have a defi-
nitely hermetic flavour'.

3. Studies of Particular Genres

The Sword from the Rock by G. R.
Levy, takes its title from the figure of
the Sword God carved in one of the
rock chambers at Yasilikaya in cen-
tral Asia Minor; its subject is the emer-
gence of epic literature from the ritual
which in the remote past was bound
up with the cults of divine or semi-
divine heroes. In a preliminary chap-
ter Miss Levy reconstructs the myths
and the ritual in which this literature
had its roots; then she differentiates
three types of epic subject, the analy-
sis of which forms the body of her
book. The first is related to the estab-
lishment of world order, and describes

28 The Sword from the Rock: An Investi-
gation into the Origins of Epic Literature
and the Development of the Hero, by G. R.
Levy. Faber. pp. 236. 3(Xy.

B 5641 l

the warfare of gods with the progeny
of chaos. The earliest known example
is the Mesopotamian Epic of Creation,
derived from Sumerian originals of
great antiquity; the influence of the
ritual on which it is based may be seen
in such later works as the theogonies
of Hesiod and Apollodorus, the Reve-
lation of St. John, and 'their heirs
down to Paradise Lost'. The second
subject is a search or a voyage of dis-
covery for a lost friend, or bride, or
home. Again the earliest surviving ex-
ample is Mesopotamian, the Epic of
Gilgamesh', variants of the theme are
treated in the Odyssey and the Rama-
yana. The third subject is related to
heroic warfare, in which 'the antago-
nists are fellow-men, often kinsmen,
and of the same quality of heroism'.
The works based on it have their
origin probably among the Indo-
European peoples 'who irrupted into
India and the Aegean world during
the second millennium B.C.'; the great
exemplars are the Iliad and the Ma-
habharata.In a final section Miss Levy
traces the later history of these sub-
jects in the epic literature of medieval
and Renaissance times.

In The English Epic and its Back-
ground 29 E. M. W. Tillyard assembles
the fruits of a quarter of a century's
work in the field of epic. The bulk of
this erudite volume is devoted to Till-
yard's analysis of the seven English
works which he believes best exemplify
the essential qualities of epic: Piers
Plowman, The Faerie Queene, Sidney's
Arcadia,ParadiseLost, Bunyan's Holy
War, Pope's Iliad, and Gibbon's De-
cline and Fall. But his treatment of the
subject as a whole is encyclopaedic; he
has something to say about almost
every work which has the remotest
connexion with the European epic
tradition, from the Iliad to the Dyn-

29 The English Epic and its Background,
by E. M. W. Tillyard. Chatto & Windus.
pp. x+548. 25^.

18

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

asts, from the History of Herodotus
to Travels in Arabia Deserta. In the
earlier sections Tillyard establishes
what he takes to be the fundamental
elements of the genre: high literary
quality and a high seriousness of in-
tention; the ample and inclusive repre-
sentation of life in a particular age or
society; the most rigorous control of
the material, within an organized
form; and what he calls the 'choric'
spirit, the expression of the feelings
and outlook of a large group of people,
or of the nation or age to which the
poet belongs. Furthermore, though not
necessarily the verse narrative of heroic
exploits in a heroic age, the epic must
create a 'heroic impression 5 . It might
be argued that any 'heroic impression*
that may be discerned in Piers Plow-
man is swamped by the didacticism
and the satire, and the poem certainly
does not fulfil Tillyard's structural
requirements. Nor are the claims he
makes for regarding The Holy War
as an epic very convincing. There are
other disputable conclusions drawn in
this book; but for the most part it is
both scholarly and stimulating, and
will take its place as one of the stan-
dard works on its subject.

Some penetrating criticism of mod-
ern poets is to be found in R. P.
Blackmur's Language as Gesture. 30
The volume takes its title from its
opening essay, in which Blackmur
asserts that the task of the writer is 'to
make the words of his pen do not only
what the words of his mouth did, but
also, and most of all, what they failed
to do at those crucial moments when
he went off into physical gesture with
his face and hands and vocal gesture
in shifting inflections'. The succeeding
essays deal with the writings of indi-
vidual poets. Blackmur cuts through
the uncritical adulation that has been

30 Language as Gesture: Essays in Poetry,
by R. P. Blackmur. Allen & Unwin. pp. vi
4-440. 25s.

lavished on Emily Dickinson to arrive
at a balanced estimate of her talents.
While recognizing the special merits
of Hardy at his best, he shows how
greatly his shorter poems have suf-
fered from 'the substitution of formula
for form and of preconceived or ready-
made emotion for . . . emotion made
out of the materials of the poem'. He
exemplifies 'the operative, dramatic
presence of Christianity' in the poetry
of Eliot, and, characterizing the verse
of Ezra Pound as 'all surface and arti-
culation', he shows this surface to be
e a mask through which many voices
are heard'. He makes illuminating
comments on the poetic language of
Wallace Stevens and E. E. Cummings,
and on the lack of a 'rational imagina-
tion' in D. H. Lawrence. Among other
poets whose works he subjects to per-
ceptive analysis are Yeats, Allen Tate,
H. D., and William Carlos Williams.

The sixteen essays brought together
in The Verbal Icon, 31 by W. K. Wim-
satt, Jr., are in the main concerned
with critical theory and aesthetics. In
the first three essays (two of which
are written in collaboration with
Monroe C. Beardsley) Wimsatt attacks
certain current critical beliefs and
systems; first, what he calls 'the in-
tentional fallacy', the belief that, in
order to judge the poet's performance,
we must know what he intended;
secondly, 'the affective fallacy', a 'con-
fusion between the poem and its
results (what it is and what it does)';
and thirdly, the 'neo-Aristotelianism'
of R. S. Crane and the 'Chicago critics'
in general. In later essays he discusses
such topics as the function of meta-
phor and symbol; the inter-dependence
of poetry and morals; the structure of
romantic nature imagery; the relation-

31 The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Mean-
ing of Poetry, by W. K. Wimsatt, Jr., and
two preliminary essays written in collabora-
tion with Monroe C. Beardsley, Univ. of
Kentucky Press, pp. xviii-J-299. $4.

GENERAL WORKS

19

ship of rhyme patterns with 'the logi-
cal pattern of expressed argument',
with illustration from Chaucer and
Pope; and the defence of 'the domain
of poetry and poetics from the encirc-
ling (if friendly) arm of the general
aesthetician'. Wimsatt is inclined to be
dogmatic in his assertions, but there is
much good sense in his approach to
poetry.

In The Poets Laureate 32 Kenneth
Hopkins presents, for the benefit of
the general reader, short accounts of
the lives and the writings of the fifteen
poets, from Dryden to Masefield, who
have been officially entitled to style
themselves Poets Laureate. Brief
sketches are given also of Jonson and
Davenant as 'court poets' who in effect
carried out the functions of Laureates
before the office was established by
formal patent. The second half of the
volume is an anthology in which each
poet is represented both by works
which he wrote officially or quasi-
officially as Laureate, and by a selec-
tion of his 'non-laureate' verse, this
method of choice being designed to
show that a poet seldom does his best
when he is writing by command or
from a sense of duty.

The Craft of Fiction* by Percy
Lubbock, has become a classic, and its
reappearance, with a new preface by
the author, will be generally wel-
comed.

Little that is new or striking will be
found in Somerset Maugham's Ten
Novels and their Authors?* a collec-
tion of newspaper articles revised for
publication in book form. The Eng-
lish works selected for inclusion among
'the ten best novels in the world' are
Tom Jones, Pride and Prejudice, David

32 The Poets Laureate, by Kenneth Hop-
kins. Bodley Head. pp. 295. l&y.

33 The Craft of Fiction, by Percy Lubbock.
Cape. pp. xi+276. 12s 1 . 6d.

3 * Ten Novels and their Authors, by
Somerset Maugham. Heineraann. pp. vi+
306. 21s.

Copperfield, Moby Dick, and Wuther-
ing Heights. The method of treatment
is the same in each case: what might
be called a chatty biographical sketch,
based on standard biographies, is fol-
lowed by a few critical comments.

Teague, Shenkin and Sawney, 35 by
J. O. Bartley, is a thoroughgoing, and
at times extremely interesting, study of
the ways in which Irish, Welsh, and
Scottish characters have been pre-
sented on the English stage from the
late sixteenth century to 1800. The
records go back to 1551, and suggest
that the earliest portraits were realis-
tic, but fairly soon degenerated into
conventionality. Bartley discusses in
some detail many plays in which these
characters appear, and some of the
actors who have excelled in represent-
ing them; and he analyses the various
ways in which their dress and speech
and other national traits and habits
have from time to time been carica-
tured. There are some useful appen-
dixes, notably the two which deal with
problems of language and pronuncia-
tion.

Theatre, 36 a collection of essays, re-
views, and broadcast talks by the late
Desmond MacCarthy, makes an agree-
able companion volume to the same
writer's Humanities, which was no-
ticed in YW last year. Here MacCarthy
gives his views on many plays that he
has seen, for the most part modern
plays, both English and continental,
though a section of the book is de-
voted to Shakespeare. As a theatrical
critic he is first-rate. He is direct and
concrete in his approach, and he never
forgets that 'human nature is the stuff
out of which drama is made'. Whether
the play he is discussing is Othello, or

35 Teague, Shenkin and Sawney: Being
an Historical Study of the Earliest Irish,
Welsh and Scottish Characters in English
Plays, by J. O. Bartley. Cork U.P. pp. xiii
+339. 25s.

36 Theatre, by Desmond MacCarthy.
MacGibbon & Kee. pp. 191. 12s. 6d.

20

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

The Wild Duck, or Dear Brutus, he
judges it first and foremost by the suc-
cess with which its author achieves
truth to life and to human nature. He
is sensitively alive, as well, to subtle-
ties of expression and of structure, and
his essays are excellent, not only as
strictly dramatic criticism, but also as
literary criticism in a wider sense.

4. Annual Publications

Some of the articles in Essays and
Studies* 1 are noticed in other chapters,
and the volume may be dealt with very
briefly here. A third of it is taken up
by Guy Boas's essay, Great English-
men at School, a 'descriptive catalogue'
which would be more interesting if it
led to some conclusions. Bertram
Joseph sets out to show that Troilus
and Criseyde to some degree deserves
Sir Francis Kynaston's commendation
as 'a most admirable and inimitable
Epicke poeme'. In The Player's Pas-
sion R. A. Foakes offers 'some Notes
on Elizabethan Psychology and Act-
ing*. Margaret Willy writes on the cur-
rent interest and influence of Donne's
poetry. And Ralph Lawrence gives an
interesting historical and descriptive
account of The English Hymn.

Essays by Divers Hands* 8 contains
a selection of the papers read in re-
cent years before the Royal Society of
Literature. Monk Gibbon speaks about
the art of translation, and warmly
commends Sir Edward Marsh's ver-
sion of Fromentin's Dominique. In
offering a redefinition of 'humanism',
B. If or Evans declares that, 'even when
science is proudly possessing itself of
areas once tenanted by myth, and
phantasy and faith', it remains the

37 Essays and Studies, 1954, N.S., vol. vii.
Collected for the English Association by
Guy Boas. Murray, pp. v+122. 10s, 6*?.

38 Essays by Divers Hands: Being the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera-
ture, N.S., vol. xxvii. Ed. by Sir George
Rostrevor Hamilton. O.U.P. pp. xi-t-155.
12s, 6d.

duty of the artist *to assert a life of the
imagination'. Kate O'Brien attempts a
revaluation of George Eliot, suggesting
that 'she is chiefly great and . . . her in-
fluence on the modern novel should be
chiefly great because she was always
primarily concerned for the moral
development of her characters whilst
being able to expose their dilemmas
with the purest possible detachment,
yet tenderly'. Willard Connely's sub-
ject is the life and personality of Mar-
garet Fuller. The Earl of Birkenhead
gives a sympathetic account of the early
life of Rudyard Kipling. Dorothy Mar-
garet Stuart speaks on the relationship
between the Prince Regent and the
poets of his time, and quotes freely
from the verse, adulatory, satirical,
and abusive, which was addressed to
him or had him as its subject. History
and the Writer is the title of Hugh
Ross Williamson's lecture; after some
caustic comments on the unreliability
of several famous historians, he claims
that 'not only is the historical novel
superior, on the historical side, to aca-
demic history, but, on the novel side, it
is at its best superior to any other
form of fiction'. Two papers on Shake-
spearian topics, that of Robert Speaight
on Nature and Grace in 'Macbeth',
and that of Major the Earl Wavell on
Shakespeare and Soldiering, are no-
ticed in Chapter VII.

Two volumes of the Proceedings of
the British Academy 39 have been re-
ceived since the last number of YW.
Volume xxxviii (1952) contains two
items that are relevant to this survey.
Allardyce Nicoll's Shakespeare Lec-
ture, Co-operation in Shakespearian
Scholarship, was noticed in Y W xxxiv.
C. S. Lewis's subject for the Warton
Lecture on English Poetry is Hero and
Leander. Chapman's four sestiads are

39 Proceedings of the British Academy.
Vol. xxxviii. O.U.P. (1952). pp. xiv+361.
55s. Vol. xxxix. O.U.P. (1953). pp. xiv-f-
368. 63s.

GENERAL WORKS

21

seldom read in conjunction with Mar-
lowe's two, says Lewis, and he sets out
to show that the great differences in
style and outlook of the two poets cor-
respond to the two movements of the
story they are narrating. As the theme
requires, 'Marlowe's part, with all its
limitations, is a very splendid and won-
derful expression of accepted sensual-
ity: Chapman's a very grave and mov-
ing reply an antithesis, yet arising
naturally, almost inevitably, out of the
thesis'. Lewis feels that the best will
be got out of the composite poem
only if it is read as a single work.

From volume xxxix (1953), J.
Isaacs's Shakespeare Lecture, Shake-
speare's Earliest Years in the Theatre,
is noticed in Chapter VII. Walter de
la Mare and 'The Traveller 1 is the title
of the Warton Lecture, delivered by
V. Sackville-West. In a sensitive ap-
praisal, which does full justice to the
craftsmanship and the associative
powers of the poet, especially in The
Traveller, Miss Sackville-West finds
some striking affinities between de la
Mare and Keats, Christina Rossetti,
Marvell, and Coleridge; the imagina-
tive kinship with Coleridge is especially
close. The subject of Sir Harold Idris
Bell's lecture is The Welsh Literary
Renascence of the Twentieth Century.
In the past, says Sir Harold, the imita-
tion or translation of English literature
has led to 'a corruption of Welsh style
and the loss of its idiomatic strength
and purity'. In the last half -century
Welsh writers have acquired 'know-
ledge of their own country's past and
the true genius of their own language,
knowledge of the outside world and
the currents of thought and feeling
which were determining the intellec-
tual climate of contemporary Europe'.
Many fine poets have appeared, and
prose-writing has undergone a com-
parable transformation. Finally, an
essay by Kenneth Sisam discusses
Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies.

Two papers in Delaware Notes 4Q
require mention in this chapter. In
Keats and La Motte Fouque's 'Un-
dine 9 David Bonnell Green contends
that 'Keats based the character of
Lamia in part upon that of Undine,
and that he patterned the relationship
between Lamia and Lycius on the re-
lationship between Undine and Huld-
brand'. Ann M. Weygandt contributes
a study of Kipling's use of historical
material.

The first three numbers of the Year-
book of Comparative and General
Literature 41 have been received from
the University of North Carolina.
This work publishes articles and notes
of interest to students of comparative
literature, reviews of editions and
translations, and a useful bibliography.

5. Anthologies

The Faber Book of Twentieth Cen-
tury Verse 42 makes an excellent com-
panion and complement to The Faber
Book of Modern Verse. Although
many of the same poets are repre-
sented, without any duplication, how-
ever, of the poems selected, its scope is
rather broader than that of the earlier
volume. It is not solely or even mainly
concerned with modernist verse, but
includes poetry as diverse in technique
and spirit as that of Doughty or
Bridges or Blunden and that of Pound
or Empson. This is one of the best
anthologies yet made of the period it
covers. John Heath-Stubbs contributes

40 Delaware Notes. Twenty-seventh Series,
1954. Univ. of Delaware, pp. iii+145.

41 Yearbook of Comparative and General
Literature, pub. by The Univ. of North
Carolina Studies in Comparative Lit. Vol. i,
1952. pp. viii+144. Vol. ii, 1953. pp. x+
160. Vol. iii, 1954. pp. iv+194. Each vol.
$3.50.

42 The Faber Book of Twentieth Century
Verse: An Anthology of Verse in Britain,
1900-1950, ed. by John Heath-Stubbs and
David Wright. Faber (1953). pp. 390.
125. 6d.

22

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

an introductory conspectus of the
main trends in modern poetry.

F. McEachran's volume entitled
Spells 43 is a collection rather of quota-
tions than of poems. Five hundred in
number, they have all been chosen for
what the compiler calls their 'incan-
tatory' properties; elsewhere he tells
us that s a spell is concentrated poetry
(sound or sense)'. Quotations have been
taken from classical historians, French
churchmen, and German philosophers
as well as from more 'obvious' sources,
and the volume provides some agree-
able browsing.

Stephen Potter's Sense of Humour 44
is more than an anthology; it is an ex-
tended and lavishly illustrated essay
on English humour whose author dis-
plays much shrewd common sense as
well as an uncommonly keen nose for
the odd and the laughable. Every kind
of humour is embraced: the uncon-
scious humour of the over-earnest
poet, splendidly exemplified from the
O.B.E.V., the humour of parody, of
satire, of situation, of observation, hu-
mour in criticism, the humour of re-
lease, tragic humour; and the sources
from which the specimens are culled
range from Punch to the records of a
sordid murder trial. Potter's running
commentary is informative, and is far
from being the least amusing part of
the book.

In The Golden Horizon 45 Cyril Con-
nolly has assembled the best of the
poems, short stories, and topical and
critical articles which appeared in his
magazine Horizon between 1939 and
1950. They form an extremely read-
able anthology from which it is pos-
sible to recreate at the same time the
changing climate of thought and feel-

43 Spells, coll. by F. McEachran. Oxford:
Blackwell. pp. xviii+209. 15s.

44 Sense of Humour, by Stephen Potter.
Reinhardt. pp. xiii-f-271. 15s.

43 The Golden Horizon, ed. together with
an Introduction by Cyril Connolly. Weiden-
feld & Nicolson. pp. xv+596. 25s.

ing of the war years, and some of the in-
tellectual stimulus provided by /if onion
at a time when creative writing was
getting little encouragement.

6. Translations

The Penguin Classics continue the
good work of making the literature of
antiquity available in readable new
translations at reasonable prices. Rex
Warner's vigorous rendering of The
Peloponnesian War of Thucydides 46 is
especially welcome. The great transla-
tions of Hobbes, Crawley, and Jowett
the last strangely ignored by Warner
in his Introduction are not easy to
come by outside libraries, and no other
English translations succeed as well as
these in demonstrating the justice of
Thucydides' claim that his work 'was
done to last for ever'. In Warner's dig-
nified and idiomatic version the reader
who has no Greek will lose very little
of the force and spirit of the original.

Herodotus is more easily available,
but Aubrey de Selincourt's new trans-
lation of The Histories? 1 in conveying
so admirablythe charm of theFather of
Lies (and of History), should do much
to extend the circle of his admirers.

S. A. Handford's versions of some
200 Aesop's Fables, 48 together with
a handful from Phaedrus and other
early fabulists, read easily and are
pleasantly embellished by the draw-
ings of Brian Robb. The Introduction
provides a short outline of fable litera-
ture, and records what little is known
of Aesop.

Seven plays of Euripides 49 have ap-

46 Thucydides: 'History of the Pelopon-
nesian War', trans, with an Introduction by
Rex Warner. Penguin Books, pp. 553. 5s.

47 Herodotus: 'The Histories', newly
trans, with an Introduction by Aubrey de
Selincourt. Penguin Books, pp. 599. 5s.

48 Fables of Aesop, a New Translation by
S. A. Handford, with Illustrations by Brian
Robb. Penguin Books, pp. xxi-f-228. 2s. 6d.

49 Euripides: 'Alcestis' and Other Plays.
'Hippolytus', 'Iphigeniain Tauris', 'Alcestis'.
Translated by Philip Vellacott. Penguin

GENERAL WORKS

23

peared in the translation of Philip
Vellacott. The episodic parts are in
prose, the choruses in verse measures
which aim at conveying the spirit
rather than the forms of the Greek.
Inevitably there is some loss in the
substitution of prose for the Euripi-
dean poetry; but in spite of occasional
flatness, Vellacott has for the most
part succeeded in his object of pre-
senting Euripides in an idiomatic pre-
sent-day English which has 'accuracy,
universality, and force without loss of
dignity'. His versions will have a wider
appeal for modern readers than those
which use the archaic diction of the
Authorized Version.

Gilbert Murray's way with Euri-
pides is too well known to need de-
scription here. His translation of the
Ion 50 has all the music and felicity of
phrasing that we have come to expect
from him, and even those who feel
that in poetic spirit it is more pre-
dominantly 'Murrayan' than Euripi-
dean will read it with pleasure.

Richmond Lattimore's verse trans-
lation of Aeschylus' Agamemnon ap-
peared in 1947. He has since then
Englished the other two plays of the
Oresteia, and the trilogy is now pub-
lished in a single volume. 51 After the
oddly unpunctuated opening of the
Agamemnon, the free verse of five or
six beats runs with ease and dignity,
and conveys something of the feel of
the original, at any rate in the episodic
passages. The choric sections are not
so happy; a more formal stanzaic pat-
Books (1953). pp. 165. 2s. Euripides: 'The
Bacchae' and Other Plays. 'Ion', 'The
Women of Troy', 'Helen', 'The Bacchae'.
pp.234. 2s.

50 Euripides: 'Ion', trans, into English
rhyming verse with explanatory notes by
Gilbert Murray. Allen & Unwin. pp. 130.
7s, 6d.

51 Aeschylus, Oresteia: Agamemnon, The
Libation Bearers, The Eumenides, trans,
with an Introduction by Richmond Latti-
more. Univ. of Chicago Press. C.U.P.
pp.vii-j-171. 19s.

tern might have achieved something
closer to the Aeschylean music. There
is an interesting critical Introduction
in which the handling of the legend
and the literary qualities of the plays
are discussed.

F. L. Lucas has written a companion
volume to his Greek Poetry for Every-
man. Like its predecessor, Greek
Drama for Every man 52 sets out to pre-
sent within a single volume a full in-
troduction, generously illustrated with
translation, to an exciting field of litera-
ture which is denied to the Greekless
reader. Forty-four complete Greek
plays and a considerable number of
fragments are extant. Lucas provides
verse translations of seven whole plays,
two from each of the three great tragic
dramatists, and The Clouds of Aristo-
phanes; the other thirty-seven plays
are discussed and summarized, and
many of their most interesting pas-
sages are supplied in translation. There
are specimens of the fragments, and
Menander too is well represented. In-
troductory sections furnish a useful
general background to Greek drama
and its conventions and to individual
playwrights. This volume may be re-
commended to any student of the
drama who has not had a classical
education.

It is appropriate to mention at this
point The Vengeance of the Gods, 53
by Rex Warner. This may be described
as a sequel to Men and Gods and
Greeks and Trojans, in which Warner
related so many of the myths that lie
behind Greek literature. Here he con-
cerns himself more specifically with
the stories used by the Greek tragic
dramatists, especially those found in
the extant plays of Euripides. He does
not 'talk down' to the younger readers

52 Greek Drama for Everyman, by F. L.
Lucas. Dent. pp. xxv+454. 21s.

53 The Vengeance of the Gods, by Rex
Warner. MacGibbon & Kee. pp. 192.
12s. 6d.

LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

24

for whom the book is chiefly designed,
and readers of any age should find it
interesting.

The 'Ciceronian* Rhetorica ad
Herennium* 4 edited and translated by
Harry Caplan, has been added to the
Loeb Classical Library. In a critical
Introduction Caplan sums up the argu-
ments which have led scholars since
the fifteenth century to reject Cicero's
authorship, and concludes that the
treatise must remain anonymous. He
also discusses the writer's treatment
of his subject, especially in relation to
Cicero's De Inventione, touches upon
his influence in the Middle Ages, and
provides a helpful analysis. This vol-
ume will be particularly useful to
students of medieval and Renaissance
rhetorical theory.

George Moore's charming transla-
tion of Longus's Daphnis and Chloe 55
has been produced by the Folio So-
ciety in a volume which is beautifully
printed and bound, and altogether a
pleasure to handle. The etchings of
Marcel Vertes which accompany the
narrative, though they have a certain
prettiness, are scarcely worthy of the
rest of the volume.

Of the many works of classical scho-
larship which have appeared during
the year, R. R. Bolgar's The Classical
Heritage and Its Beneficiaries 56 is of
especial interest to students of the
modern literatures. It is impossible to
do justice in a few sentences to a work
which ranges so widely over the fields
of medieval and Renaissance European
literature. 'Without the written heri-

54 [Cicero], Ad C. Herennium : De Ratione
Dicendi (Rhetorica ad Plerennium), with an
English Translation by Harry Caplan. (Loeb
Class. Lib.) Heinemann. Harvard U.P.
pp. lviii+433. 15s. $3,

55 The Pastoral Loves of Daphnis & Chloe,
done into English by George Moore, with
Etchings by Marcel Vertes. Folio Society.
pp.95. 2ls.

56 The Classical Heritage and Its Benefi-
ciaries, by R. R, Bolgar. C.U.P. pp. viii+
592. 45s.

tage of Greece and Rome our world
would have worn a different face.'
Bolgar sets out to show how that heri-
tage was studied from the beginning
of the Dark Ages to the end of the six-
teenth century, by which time it had
to a large degree been assimilated. He
considers in some detail the part
played by classical writings and their
derivatives in the educational systems
of successive ages, and the manner in
which they moulded the outlook of
individual writers and generations of
writers. It is an erudite and stimula-
ting survey, and provides an admirably
co-ordinated picture of much of the
thought that lies behind the early
works of European literature. There
is a valuable Appendix in which early
translations from the classics into
modern tongues are tabulated.

Gilbert Highet's study of Juvenal 57 is
a thorough treatment of every aspect
of Juvenal's work and influence. The
first part is an interesting reconstruc-
tion of the poet's career and character
in which an attempt is made to explain
the tone of some of the satires by the
hypothesis that, for lampooning court
corruption, he was exiled in early
middle life to a remote frontier post,
whence he returned an embittered and
impoverished man. The second and
longest part gives detailed criticism of
each of the satires. The third part
traces Juvenal's influence upon Euro-
pean writers from the Dark Ages until
modern times.

Translations from modern European
literatures include several which may
be of interest to English scholars. John
Ciardi's version of Dante's Inferno
aims at 'a language as close as possible
to Dante's, which is in essence a sparse,
direct, and idiomatic language, dis-

57 Juvenal the Satirist: A Study, by
Gilbert Highet. O.U.P. pp. xviii+373. 35s.

58 Dante Alighieri: The Inferno, trans, in
Verse by John Ciardi. Rutgers U.P. pp. 288.
$4.50.

GENERAL WORKS

25

tinguishable from prose only in that
it transcends every known notion of
prose'. Dante's measure is replaced by
pentameter tercets in which the first
and third lines have rhyme or asson-
ance. On the whole the translation, or
transposition, as Ciardi prefers to call
it, reads easily and naturally, and its
usefulness is increased by copious an-
notations, and an historical Introduc-
tion from the pen of A. T. McAllister.

L. R. Lind's anthology, Lyric Poetry
of the Italian Renaissance, 59 opens
with St. Francis of Assisi's 'Canticle
of the Creatures' and ends with a son-
net of Giordano Bruno. All the most
important Italian poets between the
thirteenth and the end of the sixteenth
centuries are represented in about 150
poems, and some Sicilian and Tuscan
folk-songs are given as well. The selec-
tion ranges in spirit from the sportive-
ness of Tasso's 'Cats of Santa Anna'
to the spiritual agony of Jacopone da
Todi's religious lyrics.The translations,
almost entirely of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, are on the whole
well chosen, and the volume should be
welcomed by students of Renaissance
poetry.

Walter Starkie's translation of Don
Quixote omits the interpolated nar-
ratives and some of the less palatable
episodes at the court of the Duke and
Duchess; such an abridgement will
probably be approved by all but the
most fervent admirers of Cervantes.
The translation is easy and vigorous,
and the text is embellished with illus-
trations from the drawings of Dore.
In an extremely interesting Introduc-

59 Lyric Poetry of the Italian Renais-
sance: An Anthology with Verse Transla-
tions, collected by L. R. Lind, with an Intro-
duction by Thomas G. Bergin. Yale U.P.
O.U.P. pp. xxvii+334. $5. 40s.

60 Don Quixote of La Mancha, by Miguel
Cervantes Saavedra. An abridged version,
translated and edited with a biographical
prelude by Walter Starkie. Macmillan.
pp. 593. 21g.

tion Starkie places Cervantes against
the background of his age and brings
out the relevance of Don Quixote to
modern times.

For a companion volume to The
Best Plays of Racine, Lacy Lockert
has published his verse translations of
six tragedies of Corneille. 61 Though
the verse is a little uneven in quality,
in the main it avoids banality, and can,
when required, rise to real dignity.
The translations are prefaced by a
sensible critical study of Corneille.

Rimbaud must be extremely difficult
to translate into English poetry that
preserves the sense and spirit of the
original, but Brian Hill has succeeded
remarkably well in doing this in most of
his renderings of the poems gathered
together in The Drunken Boat. 62 In
this volume the translations are printed
parallel with the French text, a sensible
procedure which happily seems to be
becoming more widespread.

Wallace Fowlie's English versions
of Rimbaud's Illuminations, 63 likewise
given parallel with the originals, are at
times somewhat pedestrian, and his
book is valuable perhaps chiefly for
the long preliminary study in which
he discusses, among other things, Rim-
baud's poetic theory and his themes
and techniques, and provides indivi-
dual analyses of all the pieces that
make up the Illuminations.

The second international conference
of university professors of English,
held in Paris in the summer of 1953,
was attended by more than a hundred
members representing some twenty

61 The Chief Plays of Corneille, trans,
into English Blank Verse with an Introduc-
tory Study by Lacy Lockert. Princeton U.P.
(1952.) O.U.P. pp. xiv+387. $5. 40*.

62 The Drunken Boat: Thirty-six Poems
by Arthur Rimbaud, with English Transla-
tions and an Introduction by Brian Hill.
Hart-Davis, pp. 87. 105. 6d.

63 Rimbaud's Illuminations: A Study in
Angelism, by Wallace Fowlie. With a* New
Translation and the French Text of the
Poems. Harvill Press (1953). pp. 231. 18*.

26 LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM

countries. A report of the proceed- arose from them, has been published
ings, 64 containing summaries of the under the editorship of G. Bullough
papers read and of the discussions that and B. Pattison.

64 Summary of the Proceedings of the versity Professors of English held in Paris,
Second International Conference of Uni- August, 1953. Printed by Hall, Oxford.

II. ENGLISH LANGUAGE: GENERAL WORKS

By R. M. WILSON

DURING the year books on general
linguistic subjects came from H. H.
Holz, 1 E. Otto, 2 and J. Gelhard. 3 1. R.
and A. W. G. Ewing dealt with speech
and the deaf child, 4 O. von Essen with
general and experimental phonetics, 5
and E. G. Wever and M. Lawrence
with acoustics. 6 General grammatical
subjects were treated by P. Forch-
heimer, 7 M. Sandmann, 8 and R. Mag-
nusson. 9 The second edition of Sir
A. H. Gardiner's The Theory of Pro-
per Names 10 is in the main a reprint of
the first, with an added 'Retrospect
1953'. Of particular interest is a Dic-
tionary of Linguistics by M. A. Pei
and F. Gaynor. 11 In addition to the

1 Sprache und Welt: Problems der
Sprachphilosophie, by H. H. Holz. Frank-
furt/Main: Verlag G. Schulte-Bulmke.
pp. 144. DM. 14.80.

2 Stand und Aufgabe der allgemeinen
Sprachwissenschaft, by E. Otto. Berlin : de
Gruyter. pp. vm+183. DM. 16.80.

3 Bausteine zur idiomatischen Sprach-
lehre, by J. Gelhard. Wiesbaden: Kessel-
ringsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. pp. 52.
DM. 3.60.

4 Speech and the Deaf Child, by I. R. and
A. W. G. Ewing. Manchester U.P. pp. xii
+256. Us.

5 Allgemeine und angewandte Phonetik,
by O. von Essen. Berlin : Akademie- Verlag.
pp. vii -1-168. Eastern M. 14.

6 Physiological Acoustics, by E. G. Wever
and M. Lawrence. Princeton U.P. and
O.U.P. pp. xii+454. 80s.

7 The Category of Person in Language,
by P. Forchheimer. Berlin: de Gruyter.
pp. viii+142. DM. 15.

8 Subject and Predicate, by M. Sand-
mann. Edinburgh U.P. pp. xiv+270. 25s.

9 Studies in the Theory of the Parts of
Speech, by R. Magnusson. Lund : C. W. K.
Gleerup. pp. iii+120. Sw. Kr. 15.

10 The Theory of Proper Names, by Sir
A. H. Gardiner. O.U.P. pp. viii+77. 85. 6d.

11 Dictionary of Linguistics, by M. A. Pei
and F. Gaynor. New York: Philosophical
Library, pp.vi-r-238. $6.

general run of traditional grammatical
terms, it includes also the more fre-
quently used of the modern nomen-
clature of historical and descriptive
linguistics. All who have occasion to
deal with such subjects will find this
a most useful work of reference.

Articles on general linguistics came
from W. Haas, On Defining Linguistic
Units (Trans Phil Soc), C. C. Fries,
Meaning and Linguistic Analysis
(Language), O. Funke, On the System
of Grammar (Arch Ling), R. Mandel-
brot, Structure formelle des textes et
communications (Word), J. Engels,
Valeur de la philosophic pour la re-
cherche linguistique (Neophil), P.
Guiraud, Stylistiques (Neophil), C. D.
Schatz, The Role of Context in the
Perception of Stops (Language), H.
Galton, Is the Phonological System a
Reality? (Arch Ling), H. Vogt, Pho-
neme Classes and Phoneme Classifica-
tion (Word), L. J. Prieto, Traits oppo-
sitionels et traits contrastifs (Word),
Y. Bar-Hillel, Logical Syntax and
Semantics (Language), P. L. Garvin,
Delimitation of Syntactic Units (Lan-
guage). In addition a number of impor-
tant articles on the subject appeared
in Word 2-3, which was entitled Lin-
guistics Today. The earlier history of
the language is represented by H. Gal-
ton, Sound Shi ft and Diphthongization
in Germanic (JEGP), W. G. Moulton,
The Stops and Spirants of Early Ger-
manic (Language), and A. S. C. Ross,
Contribution to the Study of u-Flexion
(Trans Phil Soc).

The Plan and Bibliography of the
Middle English Dictionary 12 begins

12 Middle English Dictionary: Plan and
Bibliography. Parts F. 1 and 2, by H. Kurath
and S. M. Kuhn. Univ. of Michigan Press

28

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

with a history of the project, followed
by a list of the various contributors.
Various aspects of the plan are dis-
cussed, the handling of meaning, the
usage with regard to compounds and
phrases, the form of the entry-word,
&c. Etymology and methods of cross-
referencing are described, and an ac-
count of the chief dialect areas is
illustrated by seven maps. The intro-
duction to the bibliography deals with
questions of manuscript dates, pre-
ferred manuscripts, &c. The dictionary
itself is continued to the middle of F,
giving a mass of carefully compiled
and digested information. Its value is
emphasized by the 11 columns given
to finden and flesh, and the 15 columns
in which the 45 different meanings of
fallen are analysed.

Also concerned in the main with
Middle English is an article by G. V.
Smithers on Some English Ideophones
(Arch Ling) which begins with a con-
sideration of the etymology of wrab-
ben/wrobbe. Since the literary texts
do not suffice to establish the precise
sense, he goes on to consider five other
words which may contain the same
root, w rabble, warble, wrabbed, wrall
sb. and vb., and their evidence suggests
that the meaning is likely to have been
'to be contentious, quarrelsome, cross-
grained'. He then discusses another
Middle English alliterative phrase,
wryers and wragers, which is clearly
a synonymous variant of wre$en and
wrabben. In collocation with wrabbe,
ME. wreie is usually identified with
OE. wregan *to accuse', but the evi-
dence suggests that it is best referred
to a verb of the type *wrsegan 'to cause
to be angry'. Smithers then considers
some general principles governing the
structure of onomatopoeic and imita-
tive words, and goes on from this to
the function and structure of ideo-
phones in Germanic and English, illus-

and O.U.P. pp. xii+105. 373-500. 501-
628. 2U. each part.

trated by an etymological analysis of
various groups of words, and to a
consideration of some notable ideo-
phones in the ME. Kyng Alisaunder.
In his investigation of the indefinite
agent in Middle English H. H. Meier 13
continues the work of Frohlich on
Old English (YW xxxii. 55-56). He
deals with ME. man, men, me, and
substitute words and phrases, basing
his study on numerous texts from the
tenth to the fourteenth century. The
period under discussion was a transi-
tional one in which, side by side with
individual examples of pe man where
modern English has no article, the
modem expedients, one, you, we, are
also found in some categories. Various
special problems are also dealt with,
as, for example, the relationship of
the stress to the various forms of the
indefinite pronoun. In general Meier
sees in the development of the indefi-
nite agent, a transition from noun to
pronoun, a change from the meaning
'man' to that which the pronoun now
has, a shift from stressed and un-
stressed usage to exclusively unstressed
usage, and a reduction of the a to d.
L. Spitzer, Le type^moyen anglais 'I
was wery forwandred' et ses paralleles
romans (NM), disagrees with Mosses
derivation of wandred from a noun
and prefers to take it as a participle.
In Contamination in Late Middle Eng-
lish (Eng Stud} K. C. Phillipps points
out that at that time the accusative
and infinitive construction was a com-
mon alternative to the noun clause.
The two naturally influenced each
other and gave rise to various hybrid
constructions which he illustrates. J.
Vachek, Notes on the Development
of the English Written Norm (Casopis
pro Moderni Filologii), deals with the
change from the almost consistent
parallelism of phonemes and graph-

13 Der indefinite Agens im Mittelenglischen
(1050-1350), by H. H. Meier. Bern : Francke.
pp.256. Sw.Fr. 18.50.

GENERAL WORKS

29

ernes in Old English to the vagueness
of it in modern English. The principal
landmarks in this development are
seen to be, (i) the invasion of digraphs
and polygraphs which occurred after
the Norman Conquest, (ii) the aban-
donment of the letters and letter shapes
which were unknown in French scribal
practice, (iii) the emergence of the
mute grapheme -e which prepared the
way for other mute graphemes, (iv)
the assertion of morphematic and es-
pecially ideographic principles, so that
by the end of the fourteenth century
the graphical parallelism of forms like
walked and begged can be justified
only on morphemic grounds. In all
probability the same period also wit-
nessed the rise of the first graphically
differentiated homonymous word-
pairs such as wright /write, which in-
troduced the ideographic principle into
the English written norm.

De Witt T. Starnes 14 examines
twenty-two English-Latin and Latin-
English dictionaries produced between
the years 1440 and 1740. The sources
and .relationships of each are dealt with
in detail, along with the variations be-
tween the different editions, and it is
shown that by the end of the sixteenth
century the dictionary-makers had
accumulated a considerable body of
lexical lore. The gradual introduction
of new and improved methods is
traced, and it is clear that in content
and technique the English dictionary
owes much to these bilingual ones,
especially in the use of divided and
numbered definitions, and in the
illustrations of meanings by the use of
quotations from standard works. In
Novell's 'Vocabularium Saxonicum*
and the Elyot-Cooper Tradition (S in
Ph) J. Sledd supplements Marck-
wardt's account of the relation of
Nowell's work to Somner's Dictiona-

14 Renaissance Dictionaries, by De Witt T.
Starnes. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
Edinburgh: Nelson, pp. xii+427. $6.

rium by examining the use which both
made of the Latin-English dictionaries
of the Elyot-Cooper tradition. It is
pointed out that the similarity of defi-
nition in NowellandSomner may some-
times be due to an independent use of
this common source, and in the same
way other features of the Vocabula-
rium which appear significant and dis-
tinctive lose some of their individuality
and importance when viewed against
a wider lexicographical background.

A scheme for a reformed spelling
of English, found in an unpublished
notebook of Sir Isaac Newton, is tran-
scribed by R. W. V. Elliott in Isaac
Newton as Phonetician (MLR). In
addition he prints a letter transcribed
into this spelling by Newton, and
points out that some of the indicated
pronunciations suggest influence from
the south Lincolnshire dialect. Cob-
betfs 'Grammar' (English) consisted
of a series of letters addressed to his
son. G. H. Vallins gives a careful
description of its characteristics and
idiosyncrasies, adding numerous illus-
trations from contemporary and later
grammatical writers.

M. M. A. Schroer and P. L. Jaeger
have produced further instalments of
their admirable German-English dic-
tionary 15 (see YW xxxii. 33) which
many native speakers will find parti-
cularly useful for its careful tracing of
semantic developments. W. J. Arkell
and S. I. Tomkeieff have compiled an
excellent glossary of rock terms as
used by miners and quarrymen in dif-
ferent parts of the British Isles. 16 Many
of the entries include quotations illus-
trating the use of the term, and all
have dated references and etymologies.

15 EngHsches Handworterbuch. Lieferung
10, 11: Bogen 46-50, 51-55, by M. M. A.
Schroer and P. L. Jaeger. Heidelberg: Carl
Winter, pp. 721-800, 801-80. DM. 7.20
each part.

16 English Rock Terms, by W. J. Arkell
and S. I.. Tomkeieff. O.U.P. for the Univ.
of Durham, pp. xx+139. 21s.

30

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

It will obviously be particularly useful
to the field geologist, but the lexico-
grapher and student of dialect will
also find in it much of interest. Here
also should be noted an interesting
article by A. M. Macdonald on The
Lure of Dictionaries (English). The
author draws upon his own experience
in editing dictionaries to show some-
thing of the problems and difficulties
of the task.

A particularly important book on the
phonology of modern English comes
from W. Horn and M. Lehnert. 17 The
first volume contains a description of
the changes undergone by the vowels,
both in isolation and in combination,
while an introductory section discusses
various general aspects of the subject,
the different types of language, the
relation between written and spoken
English, accentuation and intonation,
&c. The second volume covers the con-
sonants in considerable detail, and
deals also with such questions as the
influence of spelling on sound, the
causes of sound-change, and the dif-
ferent types of standard English,
though this last is perhaps too brief
to be of much value. A very full bib-
liography and numerous indexes com-
plete a work which will prove indis-
pensable to the student of modern
English. At intervals throughout the
work the results are summarized; and
it includes also a number of maps,
diagrams, and tables. The whole work
is remarkably comprehensive and up
to date, and the authors seem to have
taken account of all the relevant work
on the subject.

A number of English grammars of
various types have appeared, but the
only ones at all adequate are those
written for foreign students. 18 F. T.

17 Lout und Leben: Englische Lautge*
schichte der neueren Zeit (1400-1950), by
W. Horn and M. Lehnert. Berlin: Deut-
scher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 2 vols.
pp. xii+736 ; viii-f- 737-1414.

18 The Groundwork of English Grammar,

Wood gives a general account of Eng-
lish grammar of the traditional pre-
scriptive type. On the whole his claim
that he has 'refrained from being too
dogmatic on points where well-estab-
lished usage runs counter to what strict
prescriptive grammar would dictate' is
justified, but he might with advantage
have gone even farther than he does.
M. Alderton Pink's grammar was
written and published on behalf of
the English Association. It is rather
more up to date than the preceding,
is brief, lucid, and a useful guide for
those who still believe that English
nouns have five cases. P. Gurrey is
concerned only with the teaching of
written English. After discussing the
nature of language, he deals with the
difficulties and problems involved,
considers the various objectives of the
teacher, his methods, and the different
kinds of writing. Other chapters deal
with vocabulary, upper-school compo-
sition, and precis writing. Of the gram-
mars written specifically for foreign
students, one of the best is by A. S.
Hornby. It is intended as a guide to
the composition of idiomatic English,
and Hornby points out that idiom is
as much a matter of correct word-
order as of wide vocabulary or know-
ledge of syntax. Consequently he

by F. T. Wood. Macmillan. pp. x+374.
Is. 6d.

An Outline of English Grammar, by M.
Alderton Pink. Macmillan. pp. xv-f-134.
6s. 6d.

The Teaching of Written English, by P.
Gurrey, Longmans, pp. vii+238. 10s. 6d.

A Guide to Patterns and Usage in English,
by A. S. Hornby. O.U.P. pp. xvii 4-261.
8*. 6d.

The Structure of English, by F. L. Sack.
Bern: Francke, and Cambridge: Heffer.
pp. viiH-208. 13s. 6d.

Spoken English, by A. M. Clark. Edin-
burgh: Oliver & Boyd. pp. xix+309. 155.

The Use of Tenses in English, by J.
Millington-Ward. Longmans, pp. ix+158.
65.

Grundzilge der englischen Sprache und
Wesensart, by W. Azzalino. Halle: Nie-
meyer. pp.95.

GENERAL WORKS

31

describes and tabulates the chief Eng-
lish sentence and phrase patterns, and
sets down the various idiomatic ways
of expressing time-relations and other
common concepts. The most impor-
tant patterns are those for verbs, and
these are dealt with in the first two
sections. Then come adjectives, nouns,
pronouns, and adverbs, while the con-
cluding section is concerned with such
subjects as promises and threats, plans
and arrangements, &c. On more con-
ventional lines, but useful guides to
the spoken and written languages, are
books by F. L. Sack and A. M. Clark.
The first is full and clear, with numer-
ous examples, while the second is the
third revised edition of a book which
has already proved its value. On a
limited part of the subject is an ac-
count of the verb by J. Millington-
Ward. In the first part he deals briefly
with the construction of tense-forms,
and in the second with their use. Other
subjects dealt with are the uses of the
passive, and the use of the tenses in
wishes and conditions. W. Azzalino is
mainly concerned with style. He deals
in turn with the word, the sentence,
types of plural, the way in which
abstractions may be made more con- '
crete, comparison and metaphor, and
understatement. Numerous quota-
tions, mainly from modern novelists,
illustrate the various points.

Versions of previously published
works include The Concise Usage
and Abusage, The Complete Plain
Words, and the collected papers of
R. W. Zandvoort 19 The first of these is
a shortened and simplified version of
the original work. Some entries have
been omitted, and others shortened,
more particularly in the bibliographi-

19 The Concise Usage and Abusage, by
E. Partridge. Hamilton, pp. ix+219. 8,y. 6d.

The Complete Plain Words, by Sir Ernest
Gowers. Stationery Office, pp. vi+209. 5s.

Collected Papers, by R. W. Zandvoort.
Groningen: J. B. Wolters. pp. viii+186.
Fl. 7.90.

cal part. The second contains the two
earlier works, rearranged and revised,
and with the addition of some new
material which will make it even more
useful. The selection from the pub-
lished papers of R. W. Zandvoort,
many of which appeared originally in
English Studies, is most welcome. They
were duly noticed at the time of their
appearance, and their value makes it
useful to have them in a form which
makes for easier reference. A com-
plete bibliography of the writings of
the author is also included.

In Some Problems of Verbal Com-
munication (YDS) A. H. Smith and
R. Quirk deal with the character of
spoken as distinct from written Eng-
lish, and with the representation of
conversation in writing. A transcript
is given of a recorded conversation,
and this demonstrates the absence in
it of anything corresponding to the
sentence limits of written English,
along with the extensive use which is
made of non-lexical noises and of
stereotyped and apparently meaning-
less phrases. The problem of repre-
senting spoken language in literature
is a difficult one, and it is pointed out
that realistic efforts in this direction
would in any case be lost on us. The
representation of dialect is even more
difficult, but on the whole modern
writers succeed better with it. A. S. C.
Ross, Linguistic Class-Indicators in
Present-Day English (NM), writes on
the differences between the language of
the upper as compared with the lower
and middle classes. Unfortunately he
gives few sources for his statements,
some of which are decidedly suspect.

So long as he sticks to modern Eng-
lish G. H. Vallins 20 gives an excellent
account of the vagaries and rules of
English spelling. When he has occa-
sion to deal with Old or Middle Eng-
lish his touch is not quite so certain.

20 Spelling, by G. H. Vallins. Deutsch.
pp. 198. 12s. 6d.

32

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The first chapter discusses the relations
between the spoken and written lan-
guage, and surveys briefly the prin-
ciples, difficulties, and oddities of the
spelling system. After a description of
the different symbols and their use, he
goes on to deal with spelling changes
arising from compounding. An ac-
count is given of the various proposals
for spelling reform, and the problem
of homophones and homonyms is dis-
cussed. The more important of the
allowable variant spellings are com-
mented on, and the book ends with a
chapter in which J. W. Clark points
out the spelling features characteristic
of American English. C. Whitaker-
Wilson's English Pronounced 21 con-
sists in the main of an alphabetical list
of some 1,700 words often mispro-
nounced. The author's suggestions are
reasonable enough, and only rarely do
his prejudices run away with him.

In an excellent historical account of
the development of the vocabulary
J. A. Sheard 22 necessarily follows
much the same plan as that found in
similar works. Introductory chapters
deal with the various families of lan-
guages, the problems and results of
borrowing, and the different methods
of word-formation. The different strata
of loan-words are described in chrono-
logical order, with an excellent ac-
count of the origin and development
of the scientific vocabulary. The influ-
ence of colonization, exploration, and
trade is dealt with, along with other
aspects of the modern period. Alto-
gether the book provides an admirable
and readable account of the subject,
and although many of the examples
are necessarily common to all such
books, Dr. Sheard has succeeded in
finding a surprisingly large number of

21 English Pronounced, by C. Whitaker-
Wilson. Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. viii
+88. 6s.

22 The Words We Use, by J. A. Sheard.
Deutsch. pp. 344. 21^.

new ones which admirably illustrate
his various points. A good concise
account of the Indian element in Eng-
lish is given by G. Subba Rao. 23 He
opens with a general description of the
extent of the influence, and shows how
the relations of the two races are re-
flected in the loans. In the early period
the tendency was to assimilate the
words as far as possible to English,
but this process was checked from the
beginning of the nineteenth century
when an accurate transliteration of
the Indian words, irrespective of their
pronunciation, was usual, with a re-
sulting reaction in the twentieth. A
large number of the words have lived
long enough in English to have under-
gone considerable semantic changes,
and these are illustrated in some detail.
A complete list of the loan-words is
given, and this includes some not re-
corded in the OED, as well as a good
many earlier examples. In One Word
and Another 24 V. H. Collins gives con-
cise explanations, supported by ex-
amples, of the distinction in meaning
of a number of common synonyms
whose use is often confused, along
with discussions of some single words
which are commonly used in a wrong
sense. An appendix lists and classifies
the words dealt with. A much more
elementary book by G. F. Schott 25 in-
cludes various short articles on popu-
lar philological subjects. In Dber zwei
Prinzipien der Wortableitung in ihrer
Anwendung auf das Franzosische und
Englische (A rchiv) H. Marchand draws
most ofhis examples from French, but
with some also from English. The two
principles dealt with are Homologie
and Alternierung.
A detailed investigation of the ety-

23 Indian Words in English, by G. Subba
Rao. O.U.P. pp.xii+139. 155.

24 One Word and Another, by V. H.
Collins. Longmans, pp. ix+164. 7s. 6d.

25 Strange Stories of Words: Philology
for Everybody, by G. F. Schott. New York :
Vantage Press, pp. v-f-52. $2.50.

GENERAL WORKS

33

mology of Pall Mall by H. M. Flas-
dieck occupies a complete number of
Anglia* It is divided into four parts of
which the first and shortest deals
directly with the subject. The second
is concerned with Scottish to pell,
early modern English to peal, and
related words, including an excursus
on OE. palester. The third and longest
part investigates the length of the
vowels in Old French as reflected in
Middle English borrowings, while the
fourth deals with L. malleus in Eng-
lish. It is impossible to give in a brief
notice any adequate indication of the
wealth of information to be found in
this article, but the fact that the words
mentioned in it, often at some length,
necessitate a thirteen-page index in
double columns will give some idea of
its importance. J. Vachek, Notes on
the Phonological Development of the
NE. Pronoun 'She' (Sbornik Prad
Filosoficke Fakulty Brnenske Univer-
sity), believes that light is thrown on
the etymology of the word by the
theory that slightly utilized phonemes
tend to be discarded. He accepts the
development of OE. heo to hje/hjo,
where the hj~ probably represents a
voiceless /. Such a sound was rare in
Middle English, and so tended to be
replaced by more frequently used
phonemes. More than one substitu-
tion was possible; in the East Midland
dialect it was replaced by the acousti-
cally similar sh, whereas in the Wes-
tern ho it was replaced by h. The deci-
sion as to which substitution should
be made would depend on the pho-
neme systems of the various dialects.
In 'To Crib' A Possible Derivation
(NQ) D. S. Bland suggests derivation
from le Cribbe, found in the Year
Books as the name of a sort of stall
or pew in the Court of the Common
Bench, allocated for the use of law
apprentices. B. Foster, "To Tip' and
French 'Verser* (NQ), suggests a se-
mantic development for the English

B 5641 C

verb similar to that found in the
French, and L. Spitzer, 'Stubborn'
(MLN), would derive from OFr. esti-
bourner, itself from ODanish stibord
or ONor. stigbord.

Corrections to OED include T. K
Mustanoja, Two Lexical Notes (NM) 9
where he points out an early instance
of at random in a manuscript of Piers
Plowman. J. C. Maxwell, 'At once' in
Shakespeare (MLR) shows that the
meaning 'at one stroke, heat, &c.\
given with the last quotation from the
Shepheards Calendar, is still found in
Shakespeare, and L. Sawin, The Ear-
liest Use of 'Autumnal' (MLN), finds
earlier examples in Jonson and Donne.
G. Cross, Some Notes on the Voca-
bulary of John Marston (NQ), lists
thirty-three words which provide
earlier examples of the use of that
particular word or of one of its senses,
while D. S. Bland, Some Corrections
for 'OED' (NQ), gives earlier dates for
senses of superannuated, transport, and
gownman. B. Foster, 'Ta-Td: A New
Dating (NQ), finds the word in a letter
by Sara Hutchinson (1823). C. M.
Babcock, Herman Melville's Whaling
Vocabulary (Am Sp), includes a group
of terms for which Melville's usage
ante-dates the earliest quotation in
OED, and G. Kirchner, 'To Force-
land' (Eng Stud), provides examples
from 1934/5. Corrections to DAE in-
clude B. W. A. Massey, 'OED' and
'DAE: Some Comparisons (NQ) in
which he notes that DAE has later
dates for the names of some of the
Canadian fresh-water fish than were
already given in OED, In addition he
discusses the use of the term whitefish
in Canada. Other corrections appear
in C. J. Lovell, Types of Useful Lexi-
cal Evidence: Corrections and Supple-
mentary Information (Am Sp), and P.
Schach, Comments on Some Pennsyl-
vania-German Words in the 'Diction-
ary of Americanisms' (Am Sp).

The use of who, what, which, both

34

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

as direct interrogatives and as con-
junctions linking a sub-clause to a
head-clause, is investigated by G. Karl-
berg. 26 He discusses the terms 'interro-
gative pronoun' and 'indirect question',
and the relation of the pronouns to
the relatives, and then describes in de-
tail the historical development of the
interrogative pronouns, followed by a
brief chapter on concatenations. This
is a detailed and exhaustive study of
the subject which should prove useful
In The Infinitive in English (Casopis
pro modern! filologii) I. Poldauf makes
a thorough analysis of the various
uses of the infinitive in English, and
shows it to be an impersonal, further
undiflerentiated expression of non-
existence and unreality. The develop-
ment of the English gerund, away from
the noun and nearer to the verb, is also
to be connected with the isolated posi-
tion of the infinitive in the modal sys-
tem. M. B. Charnley, The Eventuative
Relation (Stud Neoph), deals with the
word into which, from being pri-
marily a spatial particle, has acquired
a function which he proposes to call
by this name. It finds its expression in
two objects, related by the word into,
and governed by a verb .not denoting
motion or change. Of the objects,
either both are concrete or both ab-
stract, and the relation shows a shape
assumed the mutative relation. Or
the second object denotes a condition
reached or an activity undertaken by
the first the elassive relation. Or the
first denotes a quality which is attri-
buted to the second through the action
expressed by the verb the inclusive
relation. In The Loose A p positive in
Present-day English (Am Sp) J. E.
Norwood gives classified examples to
illustrate the different varieties of the
construction, and suggests a definition
which will cover all of them. G. Karl-

26 The English Interrogative Pronouns, by
G. Karlberg. Stockholm : Almqvist & Wik-
sell. pp. 353. Kr. 18.

berg, Classifying 'which' (Eng Stud),
quotes examples in which the word is
said to assume this function, and sug-
gests that it really emphasizes the rela-
tion of one or more members of a
group to the other members. In Notes
on the English 'Possessive Case' (Cas-
opis pro moderni filologii) J. Vachek
argues that from the formal point of
view the possessive case reminds one
rather of a derived than of an inflected
form. In all probability it is gradually
acquiring an adjectival character, and
has already covered a great part of
the road leading to full adjectivization.
H. Marchand gives Some Notes on
English Prefixation (NM), while from
A. Stene comes a study of hiatus in
English. 27 The latter discusses the prob-
lem in present-day English, and con-
cludes that hiatus is largely avoided
in the language because of its phono-
logical patterns. A brief survey of hia-
tus in cognate languages, and in the
different types of English, makes it
clear that the system of hiatus preven-
tion found in the southern English of
today is not in general use throughout
the English-speaking world, where
more archaic types are found. An his-
torical section includes a description
of the use of variant forms to avoid
hiatus, and of the phonological system
in its relation to hiatus. The work con-
cludes with a survey of the tendencies,
and a chart which sets out diagram-
matically the various conclusions.

Two articles on punctuation come
from J. Firbas. In the first, English
Sentence Punctuation (Casopis pro
moderni filologii), he points out that
the use of stops in English is chiefly
determined by the grammatical and
the emotive- volitional principles. The
first charges the stops with the task of
clarifying the construction of the sen-
tence, the second enables the author

27 Hiatus in English, by A. Stene. Copen-
hagen : Rosenkilde og Bagger, pp. 102,
Kr. 13.50.

GENERAL WORKS

35

to add greater emphasis to some sec-
tion of it. To achieve his aims the
author may use stops in places where
he usually abstains from them, or he
may intensify some of the stops. But
the system of punctuation can only
function properly if the emotive-
volitional principle is subordinated to
the grammatical. In the second, Some
Notes on the Function of the Dash
in the English Punctuation System
(Sbornik Praci Filosoficke Fakulty
Brnenske University), he decides that,
in contrast with the single dash, the
parenthetical variant is always gram-
matical in character. Viewed in the
light of the entire punctuation system,
the dash, with the possible exception
of the exclamation mark, shows the
strongest emotive-volitional character
of all the punctuation marks. But in
spite of this it is bound to respect the
requirements of the grammatical
system.

H. Pullar-Strecker 28 arranges his
collection of some 2,000 proverbs in
chapters, sections, and groups. Each
group contains half a dozen or so
proverbs bearing upon some particu-
lar idea, and often followed by a selec-
tion of contrasting proverbs printed
in italics. The collection contains pro-
verbs from languages other than Eng-
lish, and in such cases their proven-
ance is sometimes indicated. An index
would have increased the value of the
book, and the detailed table of con-
tents hardly makes up for the lack of
one. A useful list of proverbial com-
parisons and similes comes from A.
Taylor. 29 It is arranged alphabetically,
according to the word following the
sign of comparison, and numerous
cross-references are provided. Paral-
lels are cited from other districts in

28 Proverbs for Pleasure, by H. Pullar-
Strecker. Johnson, pp. xviii+202. 2ls.

29 Proverbial Comparisons and Similes
from California, by Archer Taylor. Berkeley
and Los Angeles : Univ. of California Press.
pp.97. $1.25.

the States, from England, and occa-
sionally from elsewhere. Few of them
seem to be peculiar to California;
many are common to all English
speakers, while others are widespread
throughout North America. A valu-
able introduction analyses the conclu-
sions to be drawn from the collection,
and points out that the popular ones
have a long history behind them.

The second part of the English
Place-Name Society's volume on Ox-
fordshire 30 deals with the hundreds
of Wootton, Bampton, Chadlington,
Bloxham, and Banbury. It includes a
list of place-name elements, notes on
their distribution, a list of the personal
names compounded in the Oxfordshire
place-names, &c., while an appendix
gives the boundaries as found in some
of the charters. The usual indexes and
maps complete the volume. G. Barnes,
The Evidence of Place-Names for the
Scandinavian Settlements in Cheshire
(Trans of Lanes and Cheshire Antiq
Sod), is an excellent example of the
light which can be thrown on history
by the evidence of place-names. The
large number of Scandinavian names
in the Wirral shows that heavy settle-
ment in this area must be assumed,
and a consideration of the types of
names gives some indication of the
relations between Scandinavians and
English. Many of these immigrants
were from Ireland, and it would seem
that the Wirral settlers were mainly
Norwegian. Elsewhere in west Che-
shire Scandinavian settlement seems
to have been limited to a small area
near Chester. There was apparently
little influence in east Cheshire, most
of the few names being hybrids, and
their localization suggests infiltration
from north Staffordshire and Derby-
shire. E. Ekwall restricts his investi-
gation of the street names of London
to the city proper, and to names found

30 The Place-Names of Oxfordshire, Part
II, by M. Gelling. C.U.P. pp. 245-517. 30*.

36

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

before 1500. 31 Most of the names are
compounds in -street, or -lane, and
the introduction, after a discussion of
the meanings of these two elements,
goes on to consider the form of the
first element. This may be a personal
name, the name of an animal, that of
an object, or a place-name, and a spe-
cial section is devoted to names con-
taining g. pi. forms in -ene. An ex-
amination of the English and French
elements shows the latter to be a good
deal less frequent than might have
been expected. A section on the chro-
nology of the names concludes that
those recorded at the beginning of the
twelfth century may generally be sup-
posed to have survived from Old Eng-
lish times, while special circumstances
may also point to a similar date for
others. In the main body of the book
the names are listed and discussed
under their second elements, and it
ends with a facsimile of the map ap-
pended to C. L. Kingsford's edition
of Stow.

American place-names are repre-
sented by a posthumous work by R. L.
Ramsay. 32 In his survey of the place-
names of Franklin County, Missouri,
the names are not arranged alphabeti-
cally, but are dealt with in narrative
sections according to their origin, e.g.
the French element, the Indian ele-
ment, &c. This makes the account
more interesting for the general reader,
while still retaining its scholarly charac-
teristics. Full indexes make it easy to
find any name required, but the map
which is included is on too small a
scale to be really useful. P. Burwell
Rogers surveys the Place Names on
the Virginia Peninsula (Am Sp), and
points out that, because of the dislike
of the colonists for Indian names,

31 Street-Names of the City of London,
by E. Ekwall. O.U.P. pp. xvi-f-209. 155.

32 The Place Names of Franklin County,
Missouri, by R. L. Ramsay. Columbia,
Missouri : Univ. of Missouri Studies, pp. 55.
$2.50.

practically all the oldest ones are of
English origin. Noteworthy, too, is the
number of names that preserve obso-
lete terms and usages.

J. P. Hughes, On H for R in English
Proper Names (JEGP), attempts an
explanation of the nicknames Hob,
Hodge, Hick. He suggests that in late
Old English r came to be articulated
as a uvular trill which was voiceless
in certain positions. These voiceless
variants were then confused with the
h phoneme, so that all such words
were then pronounced with initial /z,
the names Robert, Roger, Richard,
introduced at this time, undergoing
the same development. With the voic-
ing of voiceless r, the dialects which
had uvular r replaced initial h from
earlier voiceless r with the variant r,
but rustic speech lagged behind, and
some words and most names together
with the derivations from them escaped
the correction the h going perman-
ently with the h phoneme. In addi-
tion Barbara D. G. Steer writes on the
distribution and early forms of Ler-
mil: A Rare Surname (NQ).

From A. O. D. Claxton comes a use-
ful glossary of the Suffolk dialect,
containing also occasional illustrative
quotations and etymologies. 33 It in-
cludes sections on harvest customs,
the weather, &c., and an appendix
of obsolete dialect words. The York-
shire Dialect Society publishes a new
dialect anthology containing contribu-
tions in prose and verse by contem-
porary writers which give useful indi-
cations of most of the dialects of the
county. 34 The Transactions of the same
Society contains several articles of in-
terest, amongst them P. J. Ambler,
The Terminology of the Beer Barrel
at Queensbury in the West Riding,

33 The Suffolk Dialect of the 20th Cen-
tury, by A. O. D. Claxton. Ipswich:
Adlard & Co. pp. xiv+111. 10j. 6d.

34 A New Yorkshire Dialect Anthology,
ed. by W. J. Halliday and F. W. Moody.
The Yorkshire Dialect Society, pp. 28. 2s.

GENERAL WORKS

37

D. R. Sykes, Dialect in the Quarries
at Crosland Hill near Huddersfield in
the West Riding, and W. Cowley, The
Technique and Terminology of Stack-
ing and Thatching in Cleveland. From
M. Traynor comes an excellent glos-
sary of the words and meanings charac-
teristic of the English dialect of Done-
gal. 35 Illustrative quotations are often
given, along with the etymologies of
the more obscure words, and an indi-
cation of the extent to which the words
or meanings are to be found in other
parts of the English-speaking world.
The pronunciation of the more dis-
tinctively dialectal words is given in
phonetic script, and if this usage had
also been extended to the commoner
words, the book would have been even
more useful. On Scottish linguistic
studies J. S. Woolley has produced a
useful and apparently comprehensive
bibliography. 36 It is divided into five
sections: Works of general interest
for English linguistic studies; Works
specifically or chiefly relating to Main-
land Scots; Works relating to neigh-
bouring linguistic areas; Historical
Studies and Studies of place-names
and personal names; and Miscella-
neous. P. E. Spielmann, French Words
in Scots (NQ), lists some 85 French
loans with their meanings and with
suggested etymologies.

35 The English Dialect of Donegal, by M.
Traynor. Dublin : The Royal Irish Aca-
demy, pp. xxix+336. 305.

36 Bibliography for Scottish Linguistic
Studies, by J. S. Woolley. Edinburgh:
James Thin. Published for the Univ. of
Edinburgh Linguistic Survey of Scotland.
pp.37. 35.

A useful glossary of sea terms in-
cludes not only those still current, but
many which are now obsolete. 37 All
are concisely defined, the definition
on occasion being helped by excellent
illustrations and diagrams. In addition
a series of drawings shows the spars,
rigging, and canvas of different types
of sailing-ships, the upper-deck equip-
ment of a cargo steamer, and the
frames of wooden and steel vessels.
N. E. Osselton, Wartime English (Eng
Stud), stresses the need for a glossary
of the new terms developed during the
war, and gives details of an investiga-
tion now being carried out by the stu-
dents and assistants of the English
Department at Groningen University.

Publication Number 21 of the
American Dialect Society contains an
article on Eastern Dialect Words in
California by D. W. Reed, and a Sup-
plementary List of South Carolina
Words and Phrases by F. W. Bradley,
while Number 22 is occupied by an
article on The Phonology of the Uncle
Remus Stones by Sumner Ives. In
addition H. O. Clough deals with
Some Wyoming Speech Patterns (Am
Sp), and J. Robertson provides an in-
teresting glossary of terms used in the
oil industry. 38 Occasionally the parti-
cular area in which the word is used
is indicated, and some use is made of
illustrations, few of which are parti-
cularly relevant.

37 A Glossary of Sea Terms, by G. Brad-
ford, ed. by Lieut-Corn. J. J. Quill. Cassell.
pp.215. 185.

38 Oil Slanguage, by J. Robertson. Evans-
ville, Indiana: Petroleum Publishers, pp.
181. $3.65.

III. OLD ENGLISH
By R. M. WILSON

IN The Conquest of Wessex in the
Sixth Century 1 G. J. Copley investi-
gates the reliability of the account of
the origins of that kingdom as given in
the Chronicle. The available evidence
from the various sources is scrutin-
ized, and he concludes that, though
perhaps inaccurate in detail, the annals
between 495 and 597 preserve genuine
traditions and are entitled to more
respect than they have sometimes re-
ceived. Appendixes include transla-
tions of the relevant annals, and lists of
early place-names, cemeteries, burials,
and habitation sites. The whole book
is an excellent example of the way in
which a skilled investigator can com-
bine evidence from very different
sources into a coherent and convin-
cing story. Dom David Knowles pro-
vides an introduction to a reprint of
the useful translation of Bede's Eccle-
siastical History by J. Stevenson as
revised by L. C. Jane. 2 In it he gives
an excellent brief account of the life
and character of Bede, together with
a discriminating estimate of his work
and of its influence on later historians.
From C. H. Talbot 3 come translations
of the early Latin lives of Willibrord,
Boniface, Sturm, Leoba, and Lebuin,
along with the Hodoeporicon of St.
Willibald, and extracts from the corre-
spondenceofStBoniface.Abriefintro-
duction discusses the significance of the
Anglo-Saxon conversion of Germany.
The Winchester School of manu-

1 The Conquest of Wessex in the Sixth
Century, by G. J. Copley. Phoenix House.
pp.240, 30-y.

2 Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the
English Nation. Dent : Everyman's Library,
pp. xxiii+382. 6s.

3 The Anglo-Saxon Missionaries in Ger-
many, by C. H. Talbot. Sheed & Ward,
pp. xx+234. 16s.

script illumination has attracted so
much attention that the equally im-
portant one at Canterbury has been
comparatively neglected. The balance
is now more than redressed by the
appearance of C. R. Dodwell's notable
book on the subject. 4 The inception of
the Anglo-Saxon impressionist style
at Canterbury is described, and it is
pointed out that the immediate effect
of the Conquest was to impede the
Romanesque development. But there
is no complete break with Anglo-
Saxon illumination, as is shown by the
assimilation of the Romanesque style
to the native tradition. Separate chap-
ters are given to detailed discussions
of the Eadwine Psalter and the Dover
and Lambeth Bibles, while an inquiry
into the sources of Romanesque deco-
ration leads on to an important chap-
ter on Byzantine influences, with a
concluding section on the decline in
the second half of the twelfth century.
Appendixes deal with Norman manu-
scripts in England, with the BM. MS.
Arundel 60, and include a handlist of
Canterbury manuscripts. The book
contains numerous excellent plates,
and author and publisher alike are to
be congratulated on its production.

N. Denholm-Young's Handwriting
in England and Wales 5 gives an excel-
lent survey of the subject from the
earliest times to the seventeenth cen-
tury. The Introduction deals briefly
with the history and terminology of
the subject, and includes also sections
on punctuation, numerals, and dating,

4 The Canterbury School of Illumination,
by C. R. Dodwell. C.U.P. pp. xv+140.
72 Plates. 84s.

5 Handwriting in England and Wales, by
N. Denholm- Young. Cardiff: Univ. of
Wales Press, pp. xi+102. 31 Plates. 30,y.

OLD ENGLISH

39

together with a useful guide to the
description of manuscripts and rules
for their transcription. Thirty-one well-
selected plates complete a work in
which the author has managed to
compress a large amount of informa-
tion into surprisingly little space. All
students of medieval or early modern
literature will find this an invaluable
introduction to the subject.

An excellent and remarkably com-
prehensive anthology of Old and
Middle English literature conies from
Rolf Kaiser. 6 The introduction to Old
English is made easy by a short first
section containing extracts from Ll-
fric, the Gospels, and the Chronicle,
in which length-marks are given along
with glosses to the more difficult words.
In the following sections each extract
is preceded by a short account of the
manuscripts and the more important
editions of the particular text. Punc-
tuation and capitalization are modern-
ized, but otherwise the manuscript is
followed as closely as possible. The
extracts are arranged by subject, and
in chronological order within the sub-
ject. Many of the shorter texts are
given in full, and generous extracts
from the more important of the longer
ones. A second volume is to include
notes and glossary, and when this is
available the student will be provided
with an invaluable introduction to the
language and literature of the medi-
eval English period. The first 65 pages
of Fr. Schubel's Englische Literatur-
geschichte 1 deal briefly but adequately
with Old English literature. The author
has read most of the mass of critical
literature on the subject, and is well
up to date. The result is a useful ac-

6 Alt- und Mittelenglische Anthologie, by
Rolf Kaiser. The Editor, Markobrunner-
strasse 21, Berlin-Wilmersdorf. pp. xxix+
474. DM. 7.80.

7 Englische Liter aturgeschichte, 7. Die alt-
und mittelenglische Periods, by Fr. Schubel.
Berlin : W. de Gruyter. Sammlung Goschen,
Band 11 14. pp. 168. DM. 2,40.

count of the subject which will place
admirably in their general context the
various texts read by the student.

A new edition of R. K. Gordon's
Anglo-Saxon Poetry has appeared. 8
The Introduction now omits the vari-
ous theories as to how the Vercelli
MS. got to North Italy, but adds a
select if somewhat out-of-date biblio-
graphy. In the translations themselves
some changes have been made which
increase their accuracy, and will add
to the value of this useful book. In
addition J. F. Madden and F. P.
Magoun 9 have produced a grouped
frequency list of the words in Old
English verse which will help the be-
ginner to master the necessary voca-
bulary. Obviously related words are
grouped under the head-word, and a
credit number indicates the sum of
frequencies of the words thus grouped.
These are then arranged in order of
descending frequency, and it is claimed
that a mastery of the words down to the
frequency of ten will give the learner a
knowledge of some 95 per cent, of the
words used in the poetry. Basic mean-
ings and a certain minimum of gram-
matical information is also provided.

In Why was 'Beowulf Preserved?
(Stud ang) K. Brunner suggests that it
was because of its Christian bent and
Christian passages. Beowulf was con-
sidered a Christian hero, and so mon-
astic scribes included his story in a
book devoted to Christian heroes. A
further reason for its popularity was
its numerous allusions to the histori-
cal and traditional stories of the heroic
age. A. G. Brodeur, Design for Terror
in the Purging of Heorot (JEGP), be-
lieves that the accounts of Beowulf's
combats with Grendel and his dam

8 Anglo-Saxon Poetry, selected and trans-
lated by R. K. Gordon. Dent : Everyman's
Library, pp. xiv-f-334. 65.

9 A Grouped Frequency Word-List of
Anglo-Saxon Poetry, by J. F. Madden and
F. P. Magoun, Jr. Harvard Univ. Depart-
ment of English, pp. xi+52.

40

OLD ENGLISH

reveal a deliberate design for terror,
carefully planned and admirably exe-
cuted. Each successive statement of
Grendel's oncoming represents an ad-
vance in time, in movement, and in
emotional force; each shows an in-
crease over the preceding one in the
use of horrific detail, and imposes an
increased strain upon the audience. In
the fight with GrendeFs mother the
atmosphere of terror is heightened by
the vivid description of the haunted
mere. Although she is weaker than her
son, the circumstances of the fight are
so shaped that Beowulf's peril is
greater, his victory harder won, and
thus the poet manages to arouse in his
hearers a more fearful apprehension
for the hero's safety. In Beowulf and
King Hygelac in the Netherlands (Eng
Stud) F. P. Magoun, Jr., prints, trans-
lates, and comments on passages from
various sources which deal with Hyge-
lac's attack on the Frisians. He recon-
structs the course of events, considers
the relation of the sources, and sug-
gests the former existence of an un-
recorded Anglo-Saxon tale of Hygelac
and Beowulf in the Rhine delta which
may have entered England through
East Anglia. K. Malone, Coming Back
from the Mere (PMLA), compares the
return of the Danes after they have
traced Grendel to the mere with that
of the Geats after Beowulf's fight with
the mother of Grendel. He shows that
the two descriptions go together, the
poet having made use of parallel parts
of the same plot to effect a simple and
telling contrast Consequently, it would
seem that when considering the art of
the poet we must take into account the
parallelism of parts and other struc-
tural features to a greater extent than
has previously been the custom.

On individual passages in the poem,
J. H. Friend, The Finn Episode Cli-
max: Another suggestion (MLN), sug-
gests the following translation of lines
1142-7:

As he (Finn) did not refuse (it to) the king
(Hnsef) when he (Finn) put Hunlafing, the
battle light, best of swords, in his bosom
(i.e. plunged it into his breast rather than
placed it as a gift in his lap, as might nor-
mally have been expected of a friendly ruler
and a brother-in-law) its edges were known
among the Jutes in like manner there befell
the bold spirited Finn in his turn cruel
sword-evil at his own home. . . .

A. E. DuBois believes that "GifstoT
(MLN) may have the sense 'altar', in
which case pone gifstol gretan would
mean 'worship, serve, perform duties'.
In a note to C. Brady's discussion of
the OE. -rdd compounds, R. H. Wood-
ward suggests that 'Swanrad' in 'Beo-
wulf (MLN) is really a double ken-
ning, swan being a kenning for 'ship',
so that the meaning of the word is
really 'riding-place for a ship'. F. Th.
Visser, 'Beowulf 991 1 2 (Eng Stud),
produces evidence that the construc-
tion he was + pa. p. 4- pa. p. was not
uncommon in Old English, and the
manuscript reading should therefore
be retained in this passage. The re-
maining heroic poetry is represented
only by F. Berry, A Suppressed 'Apo-
siopesis' in 'The Fight at Finnsburgh'
(NQ), where he suggests that the de-
vice of leaving a sentence incomplete
in order to procure a 'dramatic effect'
may be present in line 5 of the poem.
I. L. Gordon, in an important article
on Traditional Themes in 'The Wan-
derer' and 'The Seafarer' (RES), points
out that these elegies clearly belong to
a very narrow poetic tradition, and
that to try to understand one of them
in isolation is to see it out of propor-
tion. In both she notes a strong resem-
blance to Celtic elegy, and shows that
from an early date this type of poem
was influenced by the gnomic tradi-
tion which merges easily into Chris-
tian moralizing. In both poems there
is little that is distinctively pagan,
though this is not to say that they are
wholly Christian in tone, and Mrs.
Gordon finds a distinct incongruity

OLD ENGLISH

41

between the melancholy of both poems
and the Christian message of hope im-
plied in them. Their dependence on
the older world of gnomic wisdom is
clearest in the limited range of the
ideas expressed or implied, and in the
sequence of thought, and there is a
similar dependence on older poetic
thought in the theme of the transience
of life. S. B. Greenfield, Attitudes and
Values in 'The Seafarer 1 (S in Ph\
adopts Miss Whitelock's identification
of the Seafarer as an aspiring pere-
grinus, but criticizes some of the de-
tails of her interpretation. In lines 39-
57 he finds a shift in attitude from
eagerness to trepidation which, with-
out controverting the essential unity of
thought in the poem, reveals in it an
emotional complexity lacking in The
Wanderer. Similarly, in the second
part, he finds a shift from acceptance
01 the ascetic life to nostalgia for a
vanished order. The Seafarer may lack
the tight structural unity of The Wan-
derer, but it has an aesthetic compen-
sation in its sustained complexity of
attitude and diction. Margaret E. Gold-
smith, "The Seafarer' and the Birds
(RES), examines in some detail the
terminology of the sea-birds men-
tioned in the poem. She concludes that
the singling out of these birds by the
author implies a close interest in their
habits and their calls, nor is the ap-
parent vagueness of the names due to
any lack of sharpness in the mental
images of the poet. The identification
of each bird is discussed, and she de-
cides that the author must have had a
first-hand knowledge of the sea-birds
frequenting the coasts, and a particu-
lar interest in them. Interesting Spanish
versions of the elegies come from
South America. 10 The translations by
R. K. Gordon are given, and it is these

10 Las Elegias Anglo-Sajonas, by Use M.
De Brugger. Univ. de Buenos Aires : Insti-
tute de Literatura Inglesa y Norteamericana.
PP. ?9.

which are turned into Spanish. The
Introduction discusses this type of
literature in English, with special re-
ference to the Old English examples.
In Theoria D. Davison gives a render-
ing of The Wanderer in verse.

In The Accents and Points of MS.
Junius Eleven (Trans Phil Soc) G. C.
Thornley points out that there are over
3,000 accents in the manuscript, and
their distribution makes it clear that
they were not used simply to indicate
a long vowel. The position of the ac-
cent on proper names corresponds to
the traditional Hebrew tone for the
name, and this suggests that they must
have been inserted in order to indicate
the pronunciation. Perhaps they were
connected with the liturgical recitative
of the Gregorian chant, and might
have been inserted by a lector who
was intoning the poems. In general, it
would seem that the accents may well
be related to the inflection of the litur-
gical recitative but, so far as can be
ascertained, without rigid adhesion to
rules. E. G. Stanley, A Note on 'Gene-
sis B', 328 (RES), defends the manu-
script reading, and points out that
though Dr. Sisam's emendation may
improve the style of the passage, it
does so at the cost of some part of the
theological associations likely to have
been in the mind of the author.

On the Riddles J. Gerritsen points
out that 'purh preata geprsecu' (Eng
Stud) in the mail-coat riddle must cor-
respond in some way to the Latin licia
nulla trahunt. An examination of the
technique of weaving suggests that in
the context this can only refer to the
operation of the leashes or the weights
of the loom. If we assume that the Old
English translator understood what he
was translating, then he must have
been referring to the leashes, since
these are in the original but not other-
wise in the translation. In that case
the collection of 'the crowded many'
which is instrumental in making the

42

OLD ENGLISH

thread resound must be the system of
leashes.

A useful facsimile of the Peter-
borough Chronicle has been excel-
lently edited by Miss Whitelock. 11 Her
introduction gives a careful description
of the manuscript and of the writing,
with particular attention to the dif-
ferent forms of the letters. The use of
abbreviations and punctuation marks
is discussed, and corrections and later
additions pointed out, more especially
the thirteenth-century utilization of
the margins for an Anglo-Norman
chronicle which is dealt with in an
appendix by Cecily Clark. The known
history of the manuscript is given,
along with a consideration of the rela-
tionship of the different texts of the
Chronicle (see Chapter IV, n. 1). Of
particular interest is an account of the
use made of the Chronicle by later
Latin writers. C. Moorman, The 'A-S.
Chronicle' for 755 (NQ\ suggests the
identification of the 'British hostage'
with the slayer of Sigeberht The loyal
'thane', the killer of Sigeberht, is the
real hero of this part of the Chronicle,
his appearance in each of the three
major episodes serving to unite the
action of the story. R. Vaughan, The
Chronology of the 'Parker Chronicle',
890-970 (Eng Hist Review), attempts
to establish the original dates in this
section of the Chronicle, and to ac-
count for the mistakes of the scribes.
In addition he shows that from 955
onwards the chronicler begins the year
at midwinter, whereas previously the
indictional beginning had been used.
In Notes on MS. Laud Misc. 636 (Med
J5V) Cecily Clark points out that a
comparison of the handwriting with
that of Harley 3667/C. Tib. C 1 con-
firms the assumed Peterborough pro-

11 Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile :
The Peterborough Chronicle, by Dorothy
Whitelock. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og
Bagger and Allen & Unwin. pp. 43 -f 183.
18.5*.

venance of the manuscript. She dis-
cusses the arrangement of the quires,
adds a collation of the entries between
1070 and 1131 with the editions of
Thorpe and Plummer, and gives notes
on some of the annals.

Other Old English prose is poorly
represented. G. Shepherd deals with
The Prophetic Cxdmon (RES) and
points out that, although Bede's story
of Caedmon is perhaps the best-known
account of a heavenly gift of song,
there are others, and these throw light
on the nature of the so-called miracle.
The visions of Fursey, Dunstan, God-
ric, and others are described, and the
similarities with the Csedmon story
pointed out. The connexion of pro-
phecy with song is considered, and it
is noted that the story of Csedmon
conforms to the general type, but with
sufficient individual variation to gua-
rantee its authenticity. In Three Notes
on Old English Texts (MLN) Elizabeth
Suddaby notes that a warning against
the unstable temperament that drops
too easily from hilarity to depression
occurs in Wulfstan's Sermo de Baptis-
mate, and she suggests that The Wan-
derer 68 may be a blurred reflection
of the same idea. In Maldon 190 b she
suggests emendation of pe topeh, and
produces parallels to the phrase peh
hit riht ne wdss. In the OE. Bede the
comparison of Casdmon to a clean
beast chewing the cud derives from the
traditional allegorical interpretation of
Leviticus XL 3. E. Thurlow Leeds, The
End of Mid- Anglian Paganism and
the 'Tribal Hidage' (The Antiquaries
Journal), uses archaeological evidence
to throw light on the location and
boundaries of some of the peoples
mentioned in the Tribal Hidage.

An important work on runes by R.
Derolez 12 deals with all known manu-
scripts containing runes based on the

12 Runica Manuscripta: The English
Tradition, by R. Derolez. Brugge: De
Tempel. pp. lxiv+455. 8 Plates.

OLD ENGLISH

43

OE. futhorc. The first chapter dis-
cusses those which appear as unrelated
items or small groups. Two traditions
are to be distinguished; the English,
contained in four manuscripts, and the
continental in nine, of which five ap-
pear to form a group by themselves
and are dealt with later. The other
manuscripts are examined in detail, as
regards description, date, origin, and
the runic material contained in them.
Derolez concludes that the futhorc
material, whether English or continen-
tal, falls into two main types, one with
twenty-eight runes and one with thirty
or more, a distinction based on chrono-
logical and perhaps also on regional
developments. The material is quite
heteroclitic as far as the rune names
go, but runic lore seems to have been
much the same all over England. In the
remaining five manuscripts, the futhorc
is followed by a text on runic crypto-
graphy; this is printed, and the values
and names of the runes discussed, along
with the whole question of runic cryp-
tography and ogham. The next two
chapters deal with the futhorc trans-
ferred to the order of the Latin alpha-
bet. The difficulties are considered, and
the manuscripts and their contents de-
scribed, with an appendix on spurious
alphabets. One such alphabet is in-
cluded in a short treatise on the history
of the alphabet, and the tradition and
text of this are then dealt with. The
final chapter considers runes used as
additional letters, scribal signatures,
notes, &c., and is followed by a general
summary of conclusions. This is one
of the most important works of the
year, at once comprehensive and en-
lightening, and it will certainly remain
the standard treatment of the sub-
ject.

In the past H. D. Meritt's work on
Old English glosses in Latin texts has
resulted in many valuable articles. He
now discusses some 430 such words,
often at some length, and with impor-

tant results. 13 An introductory chapter
indicates the problems involved, and
describes the methods used. The words
are grouped under various headings,
and there dealt with in alphabetical
order, ghost words being asterisked.
Words due to scribal errors, whether
old or new, are first dealt with, and
then those in which the context of the
Latin helps with the meaning. Chapter
IV includes words on whose meaning
light is thrown by a comparison with
other words in various languages, while
in that following information is to-be
obtained from a consideration of the
characteristics of the work in which
it appears. The final chapter contains
words in Psalter glosses which may
be explained by the help of medieval
commentaries. Indexes of Old English
words and of the Latin lemmata com-
plete a work which resolves many
problems, and will be invaluable to all
future lexicographers.

The only work on phonology is a
pamphlet by F. S. Scott 14 containing
eleven diagrams illustrating the prin-
cipal sound-changes which affected the
Old English vowels. These show very
effectively how the operation of the
various changes may lead to different
developments of the same original
vowel. Explanatory notes are added,
and the pamphlet will certainly prove
most valuable to all beginners in the
subject. In accidence, W. P. Lehmann,
Old English and Old Norse Secondary
Preterites in -r- (Language), is con-
cerned with the so-called reduplicating
preterites. He suggests that in early
proto-Germanic the inherited means
of distinguishing the tenses, namely
the difference of endings, was inade-
quate, and consequently in some verbs
the suffix -r- was chosen to mark the

13 Fact and Lore about Old English
Words, by H. D. Meritt. Stanford U.P. and
O.U.P. pp. xiv+226. 245.

14 Diagrams Illustrating some West Saxon
Sound-Changes, by F. S. Scott. Manchester
U.P. pp. 15. 2s.

44

OLD ENGLISH

tense-distinction. The only other article
on the subject is A. S. C. Ross and R. A.
Crossland, Supposed Use of the 2nd
Singular for the 3rd Singular in 'To-
charian A', Anglo-Saxon, Norse and
Hittite (Arch Ling).

Important works on syntax come
from R. Quirk and E. von Schaubert
The former, 15 after discussing the con-
cessive relation and giving some ac-
count of previous work on the subject,
examines the available material under
the headings: 'Concessions formed
with peak'; 'Nondependent Conces-
sions without peak'; 'Dependent Con-
cessions without/>e<s/z'. It would appear
that peak and hwseSere are the only
particles in Old English which are
almost entirely confined to concessive
function, but that ac, and, and particu-
larly swa, are also important. Among
other stock patterns are the 'threat-
ened' concessions with#y/, concessions
formed with single words and phrases,
and elliptical concessions where the
relation between the two members is
not explicitly concessive because the
connecting thought necessary to the
full concession is not expressed. In-
tonation probably played an impor-

15 The Concessive Relation in Old English
Poetry, by R. Quirk. Yale U.P. and O.U.P.
Yale Studies in English 124. pp. xiv+148.
32*.

tant part in Old English concession; it
featured in the 'even' concessive use of
peak, was used to distinguish the con-
cessive from the adversative use of ac,
signalled the concession when there
was no relating element, and gave
the concessive-equivalent words and
phrases their special contextual signi-
ficance. In general it seems clear that
concession in Old English could take
a much wider variety of forms, was in
much more frequent use, was capable
of far greater precision and effective-
ness, and owed much less to the imita-
tion of Latin models than has been
supposed. E. von Schaubert's book 16
consists of a careful and detailed in-
vestigation of the occurrences and
origin of the Old English construction
illustrated by such phrases as holt
hweorfende or wer unwun do d. A com-
plete list of the appearances of the
construction is given, with, where pos-
sible, the Latin originals. An interest-
ing final section shows a similar con-
struction appearing in modern Irish
English. More investigations of Old
English syntax on the lines of these
useful works are badly needed.

16 Vorkommen, gebietsmafiige Verbrei-
tung und Herkunft altenglischer absoluter
Partizipialkonstruktionen in Nominativ und
Akkusativ, by E. von Schaubert. Pader-
born : F. Schoningh. pp. 200.

IV. MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING
CHAUCER

By B. J. TIMMER

Two papers of a more general charac-
ter may conveniently open this chap-
ter. In her paper A Fair Field Needing
Folk: Anglo-Norman (PMLA) Miss
R. J. Dean makes a plea for the study
of Anglo-Norman in its various aspects
of language, literature, and ideas, 'a
field for many workers and a training
ground for rising scholars'.

Medieval Animal Lore (A nglid) is the
title of Dr. Beatrice White's fascinating
paper read at the Paris Conference of
Professors in English in 1954. In it
Dr. White traces the history of animal
lore from Thysiologus' down to the
seventeenth century. In the course of
her survey Dr. White makes enlighten-
ing remarks on the nature and origin
of animal lore and on the illuminations
in manuscripts. The decline in popu-
larity of the Bestiary coincides with
the rise of naturalism and empiricism
in the thirteenth century, but the per-
sistence of bestiary motives is seen in
the existence of two adaptations of
the Bestiary, one for secular purposes
and one for religious purposes (15th
cent.). With the foundation of the
Royal Society there began a new era
of investigation by direct observation
and experiment.

In Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace
and the Stour (MLN) R. A. Caldwell
considers that Wace is right when, in
his translation of Geoffrey's Historia
Regum Britanniae, he placed the Stour
in Dorset and identified the river in
which Estreldis and Habren were cast
as the Hampshire Avon. Caldwell ar-
gues that Geoffrey was not uninter-
ested in verisimilitude and would not
have introduced such a geographical

improbability as placing the battle
between Gwendolen and Locrine on
the Worcestershire Stour. Geoffrey's
narrative implies that Gwendolen
moved from Cornwall, Locrine from
England, probably London, and the
Dorsetshire Stour would be a reason-
able place for the armies to meet.

Giraldus Cambrensis and the Car-
thusian Order (JEGP) is the subject of
an interesting study by R. J. Doney.
Giraldus's Speculum Ecdesiae is a
denunciation of the English Benedic-
tines and Cistercians, but it is inexact
and highly prejudiced. In it Giraldus
balances his negative arguments by
repeated praise of the Carthusians.
Doney convincingly shows the reason
why Giraldus was prejudiced in favour
of the Carthusian order. The man who
put the establishment at Wilton on a
firm footing was St. Hugh of Lincoln
and Giraldus's major contact with the
order was made through Hugh. During
the last years of Hugh's life, 1196-9,
Giraldus was in residence at Lincoln.
He wrote a biography of Hugh, which
was finished in 1213. In this book
Giraldus shows great admiration for
Hugh, especially in his relations with
the Angevin kings. As Hugh was a
Carthusian it is natural to expect Giral-
dus's statements on the order to be
tempered by his knowledge of Hugh.
'The character of Hugh must have
been the dominant influence in shaping
Giraldus's attitude toward the Car-
thusian order.'

A valuable edition of The Proverbs
of Serlo of Wilton is given by A. C.
Friend in Mediaeval Studies. Serlo of
Wilton, born about 1110, made his

46

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

collection of proverbs between 1150
and 1 170. Friend describes his life and
states that his work represents the
earliest collection of Anglo-Norman
proverbs. The Owl and the Nightin-
gale uses three proverbs from Serlo's
collection and his work is the earliest
written source for eleven verses in
Hending and at least sixteen proverbs
in Chaucer. Friend's edition of the
Proverbs is based on MS. Digby 53,
twelfth century, written in England.
There are many notes.

Vol. iv in the series, Early English
Manuscripts in Facsimile? contains
the Peter borough Chronicle (MS. Laud
Misc. 636), edited by Dorothy White-
lock. In the Introduction Dr. White-
lock gives a full description of the
manuscript and deals with its history
and its relation to the other versions.
Across the margin of folios 86 to 90
is a short Anglo-Norman Chronicle
described in an Appendix by Cecily
Clark, who draws up a scheme of the
relationship of the various versions
(see Chapter III, n. 11).

As a result of her work on the Peter-
borough Chronicle Miss Cecily Clark,
in her Notes on MS. Laud Misc. 636
(Med &v), found a striking similarity
between the first hand and that of
MSS. Harley 3667 and Cotton Tiber-
ius C. 1 (ff. 2-42). These manuscripts
were produced in the same scriptor-
ium, possibly even by the same hand.
A re-examination of the quiring of
MS. Laud Misc. 636 enabled Miss
Clark to suggest that f. 81 is best con-
sidered as a loose folio, and that f . 82
is the first leaf of the final quire of ten
folios. Miss Clark is also able to cor-
rect Plummer's misreadings and adds

1 The Peterborough Chronicle (The Bod-
leian Manuscript Laud Misc. 636), edited
by Dorothy Whitelock with an Appendix
by Cecily Clark. Early English Manuscripts
in Facsimile. Vol. iv. Copenhagen : Rosen-
kilde og Bagger ; London : Allen & Unwin ;
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, pp. 43+
183. 18. 5s.

some valuable points which allow fur-
ther elucidation.

The Early English Text Society is
going steadily forward with its pub-
lication of the texts of the Ancrene
Riwle. In this year appeared The Eng-
lish Text of the Ancrene Riwle 2 edited
from Gonville and Caius College MS.
234/120 by R. M. Wilson. The volume
contains a careful edition of the Eng-
lish text with textual notes. In the
Introduction N. R. Ker gives an ex-
haustive description of the manuscript
with some information on its history.

A phrase from the English (MS.
Nero A. XIV) text of the Ancrene
Riwle is supposed by Cecily Clark (A
Mediaeval Proverb, Eng Stud) to be
'part of the common European pro-
verb tradition . . . rather than an iso-
lated lyric snatch',a conclusion reached
on the basis of several parallels, some
of which, however, do not seem to be
entirely convincing. In 'Sawles Warde'
and Herefordshire (NQ) Miss Cecily
Clark finds a link between Sawles
Warde and Herefordshire, in that this
text is a free version of part of the De
Anima of Hugh of St. Victor. One of
the first abbots of Wigmore Abbey
was a pupil of Hugh. The writing of
Sawles Warde may have been a result
of the Victoirine influence in this dis-
trict As Miss Clark says: 'the link is
frail*.

Stuart H. L. Degginger considers
one of the lyrics in MS. Harley 2253
in his articled wayle whytase W holies
Bon: Reconstructed (JEGP) and finds
it formally irregular and substantially
confusing as it stands. Degginger
shows convincingly that the original
order of the verses has been dis-
arranged, presumably because the
Harley scribe was copying from a

2 The English Text of the 'Ancrene Riwle'
edited from Gonville and Caius College MS.
234/220, by R. M. Wilson, with an Intro-
duction by N. R. Ker (EETS, Original Series,
No. 229), 1954 (for 1948). pp. xiv+87. 25*.

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

47

single page rather than from a codex.
Degginger's reconstruction begins the
poem with the last stanza, which is the
refrain of each stanza, then stanzas 7
and 8, then stanzas 1 to 6. In this re-
construction the poem, now ending in
mock sadness, mock courtliness, and
outright mockery, is thus shown to be
a parody.

It is fitting to place at the beginning
of the review of the fourteenth century
the new edition of Sir Orfeo 3 by A. J.
Bliss. This is the first separate edition
of Sir Orfeo since Zielke's edition of
1880 and the first altogether to print
all three versions in full (MSS. Auch-
inleck, Harley 3810, Ashmole 61).
Apart from the treatment of 11. 1-46
(cf . the editor's article in E and G Stud
v, 1953, pp. 1-7) the conjectural recon-
struction of which cannot meet with
approval (see YW xxxiv. 79), there are
few emendations and they are justi-
fiable. Bliss provides notes to each of
the three versions, which are mostly
textual. A full glossary lists every
form of every word in Auchinleck,
while a supplementary glossary gives
additional words from the other ver-
sions. In the Introduction Bliss deals
first with the manuscripts. He argues
that Harley and Ashmole are depen-
dent on a common ancestor 'either
descended from or coeval with' Auch-
inleck and probably inferior to it. In
the section on the Language the author
states that the dialect of the original
version, irif erred from rhymes and the
vocabulary, conforms with what little
is known of the Westminster-Middle-
sex dialect of the second half of the
thirteenth century. Bliss considers it
possible that the dialect of Auchinleck
represents the beginning of a standard
literary dialect which was predomin-
antly Anglian, but showed some ten-
dency to eliminate from, it the more

3 Sir Orfeo, edited by A. J. Bliss. Oxford
English Monographs. O.U.P. pp. li+79.

striking features of the two earlier
London dialects. This standard liter-
ary dialect according to Bliss leads
directly on to the language of Chau-
cer. This is an interesting conclusion
and it would be an important one, if
only there were more material avail-
able for proof (cf . P. Hodgson's review
in MLR no. 2, 1955, p. 326). The sec-
tion on sources is very good. It con-
tains a brief treatment of what is
known about the form of the Breton
leas and about their manner of deli-
very. Bliss then deals with possible
Celtic material in the Breton lai of
Orpheus which has been transmitted
to the English poem and, very sensibly,
he does not look for a Celtic source
for the whole poem, but for parallels
to individual episodes. The conclusion
is reached that 'it seems reasonable to
assume that Sir Orfeo was translated
from an OF. or AN. narrative lai
based on the conte accompanying a
Breton lai of Orpheus'. In the section
on the literary qualities of the poem
Bliss suggests that the poem, though
apparently simple, does in fact show
the outstanding narrative skill of its
author, who was especially good at
achieving a balance in construction
and in his use of suspense. After a brief
discussion of the Prologue Bliss finally
deals with the derivatives: the Ballad
of King Orfeo and possible echoes in
The Franklin's Prologue and The
Wife of Bath's Tale. This is a stimu-
lating edition, clothed in an attractive
dress, but perhaps more suitable for
advanced students than for under-
graduates.

In his book An Exposition of 'Qui
Habitat' and 'Bonum Esf in English 4
Bjdrn Wallner has given a welcome

4 An Exposition of 'Qui Habitat' and
'Bonum Esf in English, edited from the
manuscripts with Introduction, Notes, and
Glossary by Bjorn Wallner. Lund Studies
in English XXIII. Lund : Gleerup ; Copen-
hagen: Munksgaard. pp. lxxii+122.
Sw. Kr. 12.

48

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

edition of two commentaries on Psalms
xc and xci addressed to contemplatives.
These two texts were transcribed from
MS. Univ. Libr. Cambridge Dd, I. 1
by the late Anna Paues, whose post-
humous papers are deposited in the
University Library at Lund. Wallner
now presents the texts in a critical edi-
tion based on the Vernon MS., but in-
cluding every variant from four other
manuscripts, one of which, Harley
2397, contains Bonum Est only (MS.
Lambeth 472 was not known to Dr.
Paues). Hitherto the two works were
only available in modernized spelling
in D. Jones's Minor Works of Walter
Hilton. After a full description of the
manuscripts Wallner discusses the rela-
tionship between the five manuscripts,
and gives sufficient evidence to justify
his choice of the Vernon MS. as the
basis for his edition, although this evi-
dence is not always so conclusive as
the author would have us believe. The
section on Authorship and Date is not
quite so satisfactory. Wallner finds
more evidence for ascribing Qui Habi-
tat to Hilton than Bonum Est. For the
latter text he leaves the possibility that
it may have been written by a pupil
of Hilton's 'after his directions'. This
question needs further investigation.
The rather long section on Language
and Dialect gives nothing new. The
texts have been well edited and there
is a very full critical apparatus giving
every variant. It is a pity that Wallner
does not give any information on the
theological background: one would
rather have had a section on that in
exchange for most of the critical ap-
paratus, and, indeed, most of the sec-
tion on language. It is, however, very
useful to have good critical texts of
these works which add to the gradu-
ally growing material necessary for a
comprehensive study of Middle Eng-
lish mystical prose.

An interesting article by R. Quirk on
Vis Imaginativa (JEGP) deals with the

use of imaginatif in Middle English.
The commoner sense 'reproductive
imagination' is not found in Langland;
Aristotle's analysis of phantasia as
deliberative and sensitive is what most
philosophers concentrated on. His
deliberative function of imagination as
'creative reflection' (Langland's Ima-
ginatif) was not transmitted (except
incidentally) through the main stream
of psychological learning. This higher
form of imagination is traced from
Boethius through Hugo to Dante.

In A Note on 'Sir Gawain and the
Green Knighf (Eng Stud) A. Mac-
donald deals with 1. 385 and suggests
that in the passage 11. 381-5 Gawain is
restating the agreement between him
and the Green Knight, as the latter
had requested (11. 378-80), and Gawain
assures him that he will be present for
the return blow, but the Green Knight
must also be present in person. This is
a plausible elucidation of the passage.

As the manuscript is written in a
fourteenth-century hand it seems best
to take here R. A. Caldwell's study of
The History of the Kings of Britain in
College of Arms MS. Arundel XXII
(PMLA). The manuscript also con-
tains The Seege or Batayle of Troye
and the History of the Kings of
Britain. In it is a translation of Geoff-
rey's Historia from the Description
of Britain to the wrestling match be-
tween Corineus and Gogmagog, and
of Wace's Brut from that point on-
wards. The language is that of the
south-west Midlands. Caldwell gives
a detailed examination of the manu-
script and especially of the History of
the Kings of Britain and its relation
to Geoffrey and Wace. He is tempted
to wonder if there is any connexion
between this text and 'the efforts of
the Mortimers to bolster their dynastic
claims with Arthurian materials', an
interesting suggestion, but, as Caldwell
says himself, there is no evidence to
prove this.

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

49

The aim of G. R. Coffman's valu-
able study of John Gower, Mentor for
Royalty: Richard II (PMLA) is to give
an interpretation of Gower's writings
'as mirroring the attitude and point of
view of a conservative middle-class
Englishman for the years 1381-1400
and through them an interpretation of
the England of his day'. Coffman sees
Gower's most significant role as men-
tor for royalty, especially Richard II,
and he chooses three illustrations re-
lated to his theme: the rebellion of
1381 and the welfare of England as a
nation, religious heresy (Lollardy),
and Gower as mentor and judge pass-
ing 'final estimate upon a ruler who
has failed in the responsibilities of
Kingship', as Gower does in the poem
which Macaulay lists in the table of
contents as O Deus Immense. Coff-
man then gives his own interpretation
of this poem: 'the reign of Richard II
in retrospect, the events culminating in
30 September 1 399, and the 33 charges
against him constitute the logical set-
ting for interpreting this poem'.

Another study of Gower appeared
last year. 5 The aim of Miss Wickert's
Studien zu John Gower is to give a
full evaluation of Gower. The techni-
cal problem of text criticism and that
of the different versions of Gower's
work are closely linked up with their
aim, and their connexion with the
tradition of pulpit literature is also
examined by Miss Wickert. Most of
the book deals with the Vox Claman-
tis, but throughout one finds illumina-
ting observations on Gower's other
works. On the basis of a short literary
notice, which is handed down in four
Codices of the Vox Clamantis and in
most of the manuscripts of the first
version of the Confessio A mantis,
Miss Wickert concludes in the first
chapter that in the genesis of the Vox

5 Studien zu John Gower, by Maria
Wickert. Kolner Universities- Verlag. (1953.)
pp. 204.

B5641

Clamantis a stage was reached when
Books III-V and possibly even II- VII
were written between 1377 and 1381,
so that the events of 1381 can no
longer be considered as the motive
power behind this work. In Chapter
II the author deals with Book I, the
Visio. Then follow chapters on the
relationship of the Vox Clamantis and
the sermon-literature; the Speculum
Principis, whose central theme is jus-
titia and the rex Justus in the State;
and a chapter on Gower's 'Weltbild',
The last chapter deals with Gower as
a story-teller, on the basis of three
illustrations taken from the Confessio
Amantis. This is a very good book,
which really succeeds in giving a clear
picture of Gower's mind.

Two studies deal with Dunbar. G. F.
Jones in William Dunbar's 'Steidis'
(MLN) corrects an error in the notes
to Dunbar's The Manere of the Cry-
ing of ane Playe, where steidis is
usually explained as the States of the
Netherlands. Jones makes it clear that
steidis is Dutch steden, i.e. Hanseatic
cities, and finds here an allusion to the
struggle between the Hanseatic cities
and the King of Denmark.

An interesting study by J. Kinsley,
The Tretis of the Twa Marrit Wemen
and the Wedo (Med Mv) considers
Dunbar as a 'restlessly experimental
poet', a parodist and a humorous
adapter of old styles to new topics.
The treatise mentioned in the title is a
debate on love which illustrates Dun-
bar's sense of contradiction between
amour courtois artifice and the reali-
ties of sexual relationship. Kinsley
suggests that Dunbar uses alliteration
as a vehicle both for coarse descrip-
tion and for elaborately ornamental
description. By the time of James IV
the alliterative line was chiefly asso-
ciated with serious types of poetry,
especially romance. Dunbar turns the
alliterative line to a new use in the
speech of the first wife. The allitera-

50

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

live line is the formal base on which
Dunbar develops his contrast between
the conventional portraiture of the
prologue and the coarse sentiment of
the following monologues.

The review of the fifteenth century
begins with Norman Davis's highly
interesting and stimulating lecture on
The Language of thePastonsfinwhich
he examines the language of the Pas-
ton family from the point of view of
the change in language as commented
on by Caxton in his prologue to Eney-
dos. The Paston letters are a much
better guide to the real state of the
spoken language than literary works
can be. After dealing with the lives
of the Pastons and their social status
Davis discusses characteristic features
of the language of the Paston family
in spelling and forms of words and
then passes on to more general fea-
tures of vocabulary and style. This
lecture is packed with interesting
material for the history of language
and adds considerably to our know-
ledge of the language in the crucial
period of the fifteenth century.

In William Blades' Comment on
Caxton '$ 'Reynard the Fox': the Gen-
ealogy of an Error (NQ) by D. B.
Sands, it is pointed out that William
Blades in his Biography of Caxton
erroneously referred to a source for
Caxton's Reynard earlier than the
Gouda text of the Middle Dutch Rey-
naert (1479), for this earlier source
turns out to be a German article of
1854 on the 'Cambridge Fragments',
which have never been considered as
a source of Caxton's Reynard (see
Chapter VI).

Christine Kno wles deals with Caxton
and his Two French Sources (MLR)
for his Game and Playe of the Chesse.
After an examination of the two

6 The Language of the Pastons, by
Norman Davis. Sir Israel Gollancz Mem-
orial Lecture, British Academy. London,
pp. 26. 4s.

French translations by Jean de Vignay
and Jean Ferron Miss Knowles arrives
at the conclusion that the first two
parts of the treatise, Chapters I-VIII,
are translated from the work of Fer-
ron, and that de Vignay's translation
is the source of the rest. In the second
half of his treatise Caxton seems to
have consulted the Latin much less
frequently. Miss Knowles found eight
composite manuscripts and she states
that there is a great correspondence
between the composite manuscript of
Chicago University Library (no. 392)
and Caxton's text, the only difference
being in the Prologue which in Cax-
ton's manuscript was that of Jean de
Vignay. (See Chapter VI.)

E. Vinaver's one-volume edition of
the works of Sir Thomas Malory ap-
peared in the series Oxford Standard
Authors. 7 It is a reproduction of the
text of the full edition of 1947. The
text has undergone some revision and
it has been more consistently para-
graphed. It is good to have this excel-
lent text now available for the general
reader, who does not need the critical
apparatus, Index, and Bibliography of
{he earlier three- volume edition, but for
further information even the general
reader will still have to turn to the
earlier Introduction and Commentary
omitted from this one-volume edition,
which has G. L. Brook's Index in a
revised form.

D. C. Brewer's Observations on a
Fifteenth Century Manuscript (Ang-
lia\ the subject of which is Gloucester
Cathedral MS. 22, Press no. 1, are very
valuable. The manuscript is an octavo
paper book written in English, for the
greater part in two late-fifteenth-
century hands, and consists of three
separate sections bound together. The
first part of the third section contains
a portion of the Gesta Romanorum, of

7 The Works of Sir Thomas Malory,
edited by Eugene Vinaver. Oxford Standard
Authors. O.U.P. pp. xviii+-920. 21s.

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

51

which only three other manuscripts in
English are known. This text, though
similar to the known versions and to
de Worde's edition in English in those
places where the two correspond, is
an independent translation, simpler in
style and more hortatory in tone. The
second part, consisting of sixty ser-
mons, is similar to the great sermon
collections of Lincoln Cathedral MS.
A. 6. 2. A number of sermons are re-
lated to those of MSS. Harleian 2247
and Royal 18. B. xxv, based on Mirk's
Festial. The differences in vocabulary
between Mirk and the Harley, Royal
and Gloucester versions would make
an interesting study in the develop-
ment of colloquial English in the fif-
teenth century. Brewer discusses the
style of these sermons in some detail
and traces some of the names men-
tioned in the Gloucester MS.

In his Religious Lyrics of the Fif-
teenth Century (no. 164, p. 259) Carle-
ton Brown gave the title of 'Death,
the Port of Peace' to eight lines from
MS. Royal 9. C. ii. R. L. Greene, in
The Port of Peace: Not Death but
God (MLN), finds that these lines are
a translation and a slight expansion
of the opening lines of Meter 10 in
Book III of Boethius's Consolation of
Philosophy, in the translation made
by John Walton in 1410 and edited by
Mark Science for the EETS (1925).
Chaucer's 'Glose' on the .passage
(Robinson's edition, p. 412) makes it
clear that the port of peace is not
death, but God, and that the poem is
not a lyric on mortality.

The year 1954 has seen the publi-
cation of a whole body of hitherto
unpublished Middle English poetry
of the fifteenth century spread over
various periodicals. It is therefore con-
venient to group these new texts to-
gether under the editors' names. A. C.
Friend prints two Fourteenth Century
Couplets of English Verse (PMLA)
from MS. Arras Bibliotheque de la

ViUe No. 184 (254) written in a hand
of about 1400. Friend thinks it pos-
sible that these couplets are the initial
lines of a song of Love and a song of
Sorrow, both lost, and he would wel-
come further information on these
couplets.

R. H. Bowers gives the text of A
Middle English Diatribe against Back-
biting (MLN) in eighteen four-line
stanzas preserved uniquely in a fif-
teenth-century anonymous fair copy
in MS. Royal 18. A. x, fol. 125M26 V .
K. G. Wilson edits Five Unpublished
Secular Love Poems from MS. Trinity
College Cambridge 599 (Anglia), with
interesting notes. The poems, in a
hand of about 1500, are love lyrics
and offer further evidence for the
secular lyric tradition of the fifteenth
century. One of them, To the Floure
of Formosyte, has an exceptionally ex-
travagant aureate diction and makes
use of alliteration.

The Lay of Sorrow and the Lufaris
Complaynt: an edition (Spec) is by the
same author. These are two English
amatory complaints preserved in MS.
Arch. Selden B. 24, which also con-
tains the only known text of The
Kingis Quair. The two poems are not
identical in rhyme and metre, although
they have some prosodic characteris-
tics in common. Wilson also comments
on the history of the manuscript and
gives the texts with notes.

The same scholar, K. G. Wilson, is
responsible for the edition of Five
Fugitive Pieces of Fifteenth Century
Secular Verse (MLN), unique copies
scribbled on blank spaces in older
manuscripts. The subject of each is
love and four of them are in rhyme
royal, one in the form of an acrostic.
They give additional evidence of the
extent of the secular tradition in
fifteenth-century verse.

C. F. Biihler found A Satirical Poem
of the Tudor Period (Anglia) on the
verso of the first blank folio of the

52

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

copy of Caxton's Life of St. Winifred
which is now in the Pierpont Morgan
Library. The poem is written in a six-
teenth-century hand, but its composi-
tion is probably of much earlier date.
Biihler makes the fifteenth century as
the time of its composition plausible,
although he is 'verging on speculation'.
The same scholar writes on The
Middle English Texts of Morgan MS.
861 (PMLA\ which was recently
acquired by the Pierpont Morgan
Library. The manuscript is written in
a hand of the middle of the fifteenth
century and Biihler gives its contents.
The most interesting tract in it is Con-
templations of the Dread and Love of
God which, as Biihler says, 'stands
high in the list of Middle English desi-
derata'. Biihler prints from the manu-
script the text of the commentary on
the Decalogue. The interest of the
manuscript lies in the number of
'Wycliffite Tracts' in a non- Wycliffite
form.

In an important article on The Fin-
dern Anthology (PMLA) R. H. Rob-
bins gives a full description of MS.
Ff. 1. 6 in the Cambridge University
Library, now called the Findern MS.
from its place of origin, one of the
major anthologies of Middle English
secular lyrics. After giving a detailed
catalogue of its contents Robbins dis-
cusses a possible method of compila-
tion, 'not by the scriveners in the
scriptorium or by individual poet-
asters . . . , but through the co-opera-
tive efforts of itinerant professional
scribes and educated women living in
the neighbourhood'. The manuscript
contains extracts and selections from
the works of Chaucer, Gower, Hoc-
cleve, and Lydgate, and two romances.
It is remarkable that these four poets
are (apart from Langland) the only
major poets known in the fifteenth
century and Robbins finds in this fact
'circumstantial evidence that there
were no other major poets'. Robbins

discusses the Findern family, whose
seat the place of origin of the manu-
script was in the southern part of
Derbyshire, Most of the hands are
from the late fifteenth century and the
presumed names of four scribes are
examined. Robbins rejects the ascrip-
tion of The Cuckoo and the Nightin-
gale to Sir Thomas Clanvowe, follow-
ing Skeat and later editors, concluding
that Clanvowe is most probably the
name of a scribe. Scattered among the
major items are more than twenty-four
secular love lyrics and a few religious
ones. Robbins prints nine hitherto un-
published lyrics.

The World Upside Down: A Middle
English Amphibole (Anglid) is printed
by Robbins from the fifteenth century
MS. Eng. poet. b. 4 in the Bodleian
Library. The satirical poem breaks
with the monotony of the usual cata-
logue of wrongs by 'masking these
abusiones with a tongue-in-cheek
riposte against women, especially their
penchant for dress'. The use of irony
and of literary artifices such as the re-
frain to reverse what has gone before
suggests to Robbins 'a fin-de-siecle
tired worldliness, the hall-mark of a
period's closing years'.

Five Middle English Verse Prayers
from Lambeth MS. 541 (Neophil) are
found on the first two leaves of the
manuscript in a late-fifteenth-century
hand and belong to that important
group of fly-leaf prayers composed
by pious owners of devotional manu-
scripts. They are printed by Robbins.

In Middle English Versions of Criste
qui Lux es et Dies (Harvard Theolo-
gical Review) Robbins prints two trans-
lations of this hymn from MSS. Har-
ley 1260 and 665. They testify 'to the
importance ... of the liturgy ... in
molding the content and form of the
Middle English religious lyric'.

On the fly-leaf of MS. Lambeth 432
there are eight lines in rhyme royal on
the theme of the unkindness of the

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

53

poet's mistress, printed by R. H. Rob-
bins under the title An Unkind Mis-
tress (Lambeth MS. 432) (MLN}. The
poem, by an amateur author, uses the
cliche poetic formulae of the time.
Robbins adds illustrating parallel
lines from the religious lyrics. 'By the
fifteenth century the religious diction
had passed to the description of man's
affection for woman. The literary tra-
dition behind such poems . . . was the
stock out of which was to grow the
Elizabethan achievement.'

A fugitive piece of fifteenth-century
verse, A Late Fifteenth Century Love
Lyric (MLN), consisting of twelve
quatrains written as prose on the end
fly-leaves of a copy of Prick of Con-
science, MS. Trinity College Dublin
157 (D. 4. 11) is edited by R. H. Rob-
bins, after a discussion of its dialect
(Northern, perhaps Scottish) and its
spellings, with examples of the stock
poetic diction from parallel lines in
other love poems. 'Features of dialect,
preservation and diction indicate the
spread of literary interests in Britain,
so that by the late fifteenth century a
Northern gentleman composes a love
lyric in the accepted fashion of his
day. The way leads almost imper-
ceptibly into the world of Eliza-
beth.'

Finally, in this group of unpublished
verse collected by Robbins, Consilium
Domini in eternum Manet (Harley MS.
2252) (Stud Neoph) is a late-Middle-
English poem, a series of moral ad-
monitions to a man of substance. The
contents of the manuscript, the com-
mon-place book of John Coin, reveal
the literary interests of a prosperous
'burgher'. This manuscript, and simi-
lar ones, illustrate the bonds between
the literature of the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries.

One of the poems in Robbins's
Secular Lyrics of the Fourteenth and
Fifteenth Centuries is the subject of
some glossarial notes, especially on

the Latin words in the article The
Middle English 'The Insects and the
Miller' by R. H. Bowers (NQ).

Some studies in the field of drama
will bring this chapter to a close. The
Chester play of Abraham and Isaac is
the subject of J. A. Bryant Jr.'s article
Chester's Sermon for Catechumens
(JEGP). The most distinctive thing
about this play is its appearance in a
pageant that prefaces it with episodes
dealing with the offering of Melchi-
zedek and the institution of circum-
cision. Commentaries have not made
enough of this fact which is one of the
best reasons for calling the play old.
What unifies the episodes is the pre-
sence of Abraham in each, and also
the symbolic significance given to
them by the expositor, Gobet on the
Green. The offering of Melchizedek
prefigures the Eucharist, the rite of
circumcision that of baptism, and the
sacrifice of Isaac that of Christ on the
Cross. These interpretations, though
in themselves merely commonplaces,
have been brought together in a single
unit and form a striking compendium
of the Christian faith. Thus the play
is a didactic one, a kind of sermon
devised for a group of catechumens.

A mare's nest in English dramatic
history was created by A. F. Leach in
his British Academy Lecture in 1913
by discovering William Wheatley, the
first Lincoln Schoolmaster, who in his
commentary on Boethius gives two
hymns addressed to St. Hugh, which
a 'certain young clerk (himself) . . .
composed for a play on Christmas
Day' in 1316. J. M. Manly (ES xiii,
1928, p. 53) stated that there existed
a Miracle Play in the fourteenth cen-
tury on the subject of the ritual sacri-
fice of little Hugh. Both F. N. Robin-
son in his notes to the Prioress's Tale
and R. M. Wilson in Lost Literature
of Mediaeval England refer to a play
performed at Lincoln in 1316. R. S.
Loomis now shows convincingly in his

54

MIDDLE ENGLISH, EXCLUDING CHAUCER

article Was there a Play on the Mar-
tyrdom of Hugh of Lincoln? (MLN)
that there is no information at all about
a play. The hymns were composed for
playing on some instrument, perhaps
the organ, as the words ludendo com-
posuit indicate. In the same volume of
MLN L. Spitzer doubts the correct
translation of these words as 'he com-
posed for playing' and suggests: 'he
composed as a poetic exercise'.
A really existing dramatic fragment

is revealed by R. H. Robbins in A
Dramatic Fragment from a Caesar
Augustus Play (Anglid). It occurs in
MS. Ashmole 750. After a brief
description of the manuscript and its
history Robbins prints the fragment,
a stanza and a half of tail-rhyme
representing a speech by a Secundus
Miles, and he discusses verbal and
situational parallels. Presumably it
belongs to a lost play on the slaughter
of the Innocents.

V. MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

By JOYCE BAZIRE

1. General

CLAES SCHAAR, whose concern in Some
Types of Narrative in Chaucer's
Poetry 1 is with Chaucer's style and
technique, distinguishes three types of
narrative which he classifies as 'sum-
mary', 'close chronological', and 'loose
chronological'. The discussion is made
easier by the selection from Chaucer's
poems of parts only, parts which 'form
coherent paragraphs from the point of
view of content, have certain technical
characteristics, and are philologically
distinguishable, i.e. marked by certain
linguistic features'.

In each case Schaar examines the
content of that particular type of nar-
rative, the structure of the sentence
(whether simple or complex), and the
vocabulary (which tends to reflect the
simplicity or complexity of the sen-
tence-structure). Such an examination
would be useful if this were as far as
it went, but, by comparing Chaucer's
practice with that exemplified in the
works of those poets who supplied his
source-material, Schaar provides a
new perspective. In the course of the
examination of specific examples from
Chaucer, comparison is made with the
corresponding passages in the source,
and the interspersed critical comments
here, as well as elsewhere, are of in-
terest. Later in each chapter a survey
is undertaken of the particular type of
narrative as it is found throughout the
works of these authors.

Even when a type, e.g. loose chro-
nological narrative, is found in the

1 Some Types of Narrative in Chaucer's
Poetry, by Claes Schaar. (Lund Studies in
English, XXV.) Lund : C. W. K. Gleerup.
pp. 293. Paper, Kr. 26. Copenhagen:
Munksgaard. Kr. 36.40.

sources, Chaucer's usage may still
have much that is individual, and, in
addition, the function of the type may
vary from author to author. Taking an
over-all view, Schaar concludes that
Chaucer displays considerable origin-
ality, and in most cases diverges not
only from his immediate sources, but
also from the general tradition. A fur-
ther conclusion is presented, though
again the application is only general,
that from the technical point of view
the earlier poems are the more origi-
nal and unconventional. Whatever
conclusions may be reached, Schaar is
at pains to caution his readers about
the limitations of this treatment; we
should do well to regard them mainly
in the light of useful pointers.

In Verses of Cadence 2 James G.
Southworth launches an attack on
the theories or fallacies concerning
Chaucer's prosody held by nineteenth-
century scholars. Approximately half
the book is occupied with the 'debunk-
ing* of so-called myths; and here at
length Southworth severely castigates
all those scholars, especially Child,
who have tried to turn Chaucer into
a 'correct' poet, and have insisted on
the preservation of final -e. Then
Southworth proceeds to show how,
despite spelling variations from one
manuscript to another, the essential
rhythm of a line is always the same,
though the same metrical scansion
could not be made to apply to all
varieties equally well. He also carries
out some analysis of positions in
which the virgule may be found, and
shows how Chaucer used considerable
variety.

2 Verses of Cadence, by James G. South-
worth. Oxford: Blackwell. pp.94. 125. 6d.

56

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

The last chapter deals with the
poetry of Chaucer's followers, and
judgements are again based on manu-
script texts; Southworth finds that
although the rhythmical scansion ob-
tains throughout the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries, yet the success of the
medium is not constant, nor were the
possibilities afforded by varying the
position of the virgule always appre-
ciated. In the chapter dealing specifi-
cally with Chaucer's work examples
are taken practically exclusively
from the Canterbury Tales, and the
only poem from which they are drawn
elsewhere is Troilus and Criseyde.
When the rhythmical scansion is given
for these quotations in musical nota-
tion above the line, we are presented
with a fait accompli, with no real in-
dication of the system by which it has
been produced. Admittedly South-
worth remarks more than once that
the details of the tune may depend to
some extent on a personal interpreta-
tion, but some idea of the basis of his
system would seem to be essential.
(Reviewed by D. S. Brewer, RES vi
[1955], pp. 303-4.)

Helge Kokeritz has published A
Guide to Chaucer's Pronunciation*
which looks back from Modern Eng-
lish to Chaucerian sounds, so that the
beginner is able to base the unknown
on the known, and does not need to
worry about Middle English phono-
logy. Although the differences between
British and American English are not
ignored, they may occasionally lead
to a little confusion. The selections in
phonetic transcript are intended to
provide a working demonstration of
the symbols, and a long-playing
record, with Kokeritz as the speaker,
is also issued.

David Bonnell Green asserts that A

3 A Guide to Chaucer's Pronunciation, by
Helge Kokeritz. Stockholm: Almqvist &

Wiksell.

pp. 32.

New Haven: Whitlock's Inc.

Chaucer Allusion in Edward du Bois's
'Old Nick' (NQ) is probably the first
made to Chaucer in prose fiction.
Philip Williams quotes A 1593 Chau-
cer Allusion (MLN) not mentioned by
Caroline Spurgeon, though he points
out that the ascription to Chaucer is
incorrect; and John Owen mentions A
Euphemistic Allusion to the 'Reeve's
Tale' (MLN) of the seventeenth cen-
tury, which has likewise been over-
looked. Beach Langston in William
Penn and Chaucer (NQ) gives two
additional references (of which part
of one is noted as a wrong ascription)
taken from William Penn's Treatise of
Oaths (1675), and indicates their sig-
nificance in the context. Rossell Hope
Robbins publishes A Love Epistle by
'Chaucer' (MLR), a poem incor-
rectly ascribed to Chaucer in Trinity
College, Cambridge, MS. 599 (R.
3. 19).

Francis P. Magoun, Jr., has two
articles in Mediaeval Studies: Chau-
cer's Ancient and Biblical World:
Addenda, in which not only are omis-
sions from his previous article (YW
xxxiv. 60) included, but in addition
some of the mistakes are corrected;
and Chaucer's Great Britain, which is
similar in scheme, though here the ety-
mology of the name is added, since it
has more point on this occasion. Most
of the references are, not surprisingly,
to the Canterbury Tales. The 'back-
ground details', suggested by refer-
ences to the 'Blue Guides', &c., should
be of interest to the Commonwealth
and American students for whom they
are intended. It is unfortunate that
again the usefulness is marred by some
incorrect references.

In The Proverbs of Serlo of Wilton
(Medtseval Studies) A. C. Friend men-
tions the earliest written source for at
least sixteen proverbs in Chaucer's
works.

Contrary to general belief, Chaucer
does not hold that love is incompatible

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

57

with marriage, nor does he celebrate
illicit love. In a brief general examina-
tion D. S. Brewer points this out in
Love and Marriage in Chaucer's
Poetry (MLR), and then subjects
Troilus, the apparent exception, to a
more detailed consideration. Although
the actual facts are as he found them
in Boccaccio, Chaucer has, however,
interpreted them so that he gives the
impression that the love he writes of
is thoroughly honourable; and the
problem arising from the fact that
there is no marriage is in the main
silently passed over by Chaucer.

In Chaucer's Use of 'Gari (JEGP)
Elizabeth R. Homann maintains that
in Chaucer the preterite formed with
gan is not to be equated with the
simple preterite, in which case gan
would just be redundant. She discusses
several examples from Chaucer, and
for comparison cites some from other
poets of the period. Some of these
latter agree with Chaucer in their
practice; some show redundancy. The
conclusion drawn is that the gan-i orm
is to be regarded as aspect, and that
by this means the poet was afforded
greater precision, which in turn led
to 'a more vivid sense of movement
through space'.

To what extent Chaucer followed
the medieval rhetorical practice of in-
dulging in word-play has not hitherto
been fully recognized. Helge Kokeritz,
in Rhetorical Word-Play in Chaucer
(PMLA), first reviews what has been
written on the subject, and then pro-
ceeds to define such devices, although
pointing out that the three main divi-
sions of traductio, adnominatio, and
significatio are by no means clear-cut.
Chaucer had before him models in the
Roman de la Rose, and in the works of
Machault among others, and Kokeritz
furnishes examples at length to show
Chaucer's familiarity. ^ Although he
never abandoned this type of device,
examples are, however, more easily

found in the earlier rather than the
later works.

The New Century Cyclopedia of
Names 4 contains four factual accounts
by Robert A. Pratt: 'The Canterbury
Tales' (p. 800), Geoffrey Chaucer (p.
917), 'The Legend of Good Women'
(p. 2419), 'Troilus and Criseyde' (p.
3905).

Margaret Galway, writing on Walter
Roet and Philippa Chaucer (NQ)
would connect the former to Philippa
Chaucer's family, and suggests that
he may have been her full brother or
a half-brother.

The Age of Chaucer 5 (noticed also
in Chapter I, n. 8) contains two essays,
each of which is devoted to a Canter-
bury Tale. There is, in addition, a
general introduction on reading, un-
derstanding, and enjoying Chaucer's
works, which is to be found in Part I
in 'A Survey of Medieval Verse' by
John Speirs. In one of the essays, 'The
Nonne Preestes Tale', David Hoi-
brook urges the reader not to use
translations and modernizations, but
instead to treat Chaucer's poetry as
poetry, because the rhythm, choice of
words, &c., have been carefully thought
out. By setting this apparently comic
tale against its medieval background,
Holbrook also demonstrates the
serious purposes underlying it. In his
essay, 'The Pardoneres Prologue and
Tale\ John Speirs has slightly revised
an earlier essay in his Chaucer the
Maker (YW xxxii. 58).

The Third Annual College of the
Pacific Faculty Research Lecture, The
Emerging Biography of a Poet, given
on 1 June 1953 by Clair C. Olson, has
been published in a condensed form.
After gathering together the scraps of

4 The New Century Cyclopedia of Names.
New York : Appleton-Century-Crof ts ; Lon-
don: Bailey Brothers & Swinfen. 3 vols.,
pp. xxviii+4342. $39.50. 15. 15s.

5 The Age of Chaucer, ed. Boris Ford.
(A Guide to English Literature, I.) Penguin
Books, pp. 492. 35. 6rf. (now 55.)

58

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

information about Chaucer's life to
be gleaned from the poet's own works
and from other sources up to the mid-
sixteenth century, Olson evaluates the
biographies of him written between
that date and the present day. He
closes with a hint of information to be
expected in the future.

Roland Blenner-Hassett's article,
Yeats' Use of Chaucer (Anglia\ is
dealt with in Chapter XIV.

2. 'Canterbury Tales'

R. M. Lumiansky prefaces his trans-
lation of the Canterbury Tales 6 with a
brief introduction, which emphasizes
the outstanding qualities of Chaucer's
best-known work, and explains the
choice of an 'idiomatic prose' for the
translation. Lumiansky has produced
a narrative which has captured the
tone and quality of the original, even
though it may not be an exact transla-
tion in every detail, e.g. two qualifying
words of practically the same meaning
may be translated by one only, and
the interpretation of an occasional
word may be questioned. On the other
hand, Lumiansky is not content to
translate a word such as out rider e
simply by 'outrider', but uses an ex-
planatory phrase. At the end of the
book Lumiansky prints the General
Prologue in the original. This publica-
tion is a revised version of the trans-
lation published in 1948 by Simon and
Schuster.

In Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales':
Aesthetic Design in Stones of the
First Day (Eng Stud) Charles A.
Owen, Jr., elucidates the pattern which
he sees in the first four Canterbury
Tales, in the tales individually, and
in the tales when regarded as a unit.
Throughout the Knight's Tale paral-

6 Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury
Tales, translated into Modern English Prose,
by R. M. Lumiansky. Rinehart pp.
xxviii+482. $0.95.

lelism and paradox are developed in
the history of the two protagonists
right up to their final fates, which, in
the light of the chivalric ideal, seem
equally desirable: 'Arcite's death at
the height of his glory, and Palamon's
attainment of love and happiness'. The
use of parallelism is extended further:
into the Miller's Tale, where the two
lovers vie for Alisoun's favours, and
into the 'real' world where the Miller
and the Reeve contend through the
stories they tell. The characters of the
two lovers in the Miller's Tale 9 so
different from Palamon and Arcite,
are carefully delineated and shown to
contribute to their eventual destinies.
The Reeve takes up the challenge of
the Miller's Tale, and 'to the frank
sensuality of the Miller he opposes
a sapless and efficient hypocrisy'. The
fragmentary Cook's Tale probably
had some part in the pattern too.

Chaucer the pilgrim must not be
confused with Chaucer the poet, nor,
for that matter, with Chaucer the man
of business and Court. In an enter-
taining article, Chaucer the Pilgrim
(PMLA\ E. Talbot Donaldson em-
phasizes the propriety of having a
naive Chaucer as the reporter, one
who notes particular details about his
fellows without comprehending their
real import. With those of his own
class he may be a little patronizing,
and his interest lies mainly in their
skill in money matters. His portraits
of the rascals show his admiration of
the 'superlative' qualities in their utter
rascality, just as he admires the 'super-
latives' of his superiors, such as the
Prioress, or those of genuine virtue in
the Knight. The tradition of the 'fal-
lible first person singular' is an old
one and the function of such a pre-
sentation is moral. This could also
add to the comic effect for Chaucer's
audience, whp would see simulta-
neously the pilgrim and the poet, and
then, through the eyes of these two,

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

59

the pilgrims as they were and as they
seemed to be.

In view of the suggestion made by
Manly .and Rickert that some of the
variants in the Canterbury Tales may
be authentic early unrevised readings,
J. Burke Severs, in Author's Revision
in Block C of the 'Canterbury Tales'
(Spec), has undertaken a careful ex-
amination of Block C to find out
whether it contains any evidence to
support this theory. With regard to
the two tales the Physician's Tale
and the Pardoner's Tale Severs con-
cludes that, although one or two
words may have been altered by
Chaucer, perhaps even at the time of
composition, yet he carried out no
systematic revision. The variants must
then, in the main, be attributed to
scribal tradition. The Link, on the
other hand, has been subjected to re-
vision of importance, revision which
has led to 'improvements in coherence,
forcefulness, and subtle enrichment
of character portrayal', giving us an
insight into Chaucer's 'consummate
artistry'.

The two descriptions of the Reeve,
the one in the General Prologue and
the other in the Prologue to his Tale,
are complementary. Hints given in the
former by details of dress, <&c., are
picked up iri the latter and presented
in the Reeve's confession. Brooks
Forehand, who notes this procedure
in Old Age and Chaucer's Reeve
(PMLA), picks out for special men-
tion the rusty blade (CT I [A], 618),
to the Reeve a symbol of youth, to the
reader of age; and it is his age which
provides the theme of his Prologue,
whereas in the General Prologue it
was suggested only indirectly.

For dramatic purposes the portrait
of the Miller in the Reeve's Tale is
intended to parallel that of the pilgrim-
miller. One link that both knew how
to play the bagpipes is dealt with in
Chaucer's Millers and Their Bagpipes

(Spec) by Edward A. Block. He claims
that in western Europe in the Middle
Ages bagpipes were played chiefly by
peasants, and so the Millers* social
origin and rural background are em-
phasized. But there is also attached
to the bagpipes a symbolic function
which is well illustrated in the paint-
ings of Jheronimus Bosch, and his
disciple, Pieter Brueghel the elder:
certain features of the pilgrim-miller's
physiognomy indicate lechery and
gluttony, and these vices were held to
be symbolized by the bagpipes. The
lecherous trait in the Reeve's Miller
was indicated both by his 'camus* nose
and by his ability to play the bagpipes.

In Chaucer and Shakespeare: The
Dramatic Vision, 1 volume iv of Living
Masterpieces of English Literature, an
introductory essay on Chaucer covers
briefly the poet's background, his
'humor and pity', the Canterbury
Tales, with particular reference to the
three tales printed in full, and his ver-
sification and language; here the re-
marks on pronunciation are generally
misleading. Skeat's edition, with a few
unspecified emendations, provides the
text for the General Prologue, and the
tales of the Nun's Priest, Pardoner,
and Franklin. Instead of a glossary,
meanings of words (sometimes ques-
tionable) together with other com-
ments are found as footnotes.

The General Prologue has been the
subject of a great deal of comment,
though little has been directed towards
the actual structure and the social im-
plication of the composition. This lack
J. Swart sets out to repair in The Con-
struction of Chaucer's 'General Pro-
logue' (Neophil xxxviii). The pageant
of the pilgrims is broken up, first by
the five guildsmen, and then by the
last five rogues, to whom Swart would

7 Chaucer and Shakespeare: The Drama-
tic Vision, by Dorothy Bethurum and Ran-
dall Stewart. New York : Scott, Foresman.
$2.25.

60

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

also join Chaucer himself. In Swarfs
opinion, the incomplete state of the
whole poem has had repercussions on
the Prologue, since, he suggests, when
the tales of the Nun's Priest and the
Second Nun had been tidied, up, por-
traits of these two would have ap-
peared in the General Prologue, and
then better balance would be achieved
between the Knight, Squire, and Yeo-
man on the one hand, and the Prioress,
Second Nun, and Priest on the other.
As it is, the second group is formed by
the Prioress, Monk, and Friar, who
may in some respects, however, be
equated with the other three.

The Merchant-Clerk-Man of Law
group is balanced by the Shipman-
Physician-Wife of Bath group, where
commerce and industry and the learned
professions are represented, the Clerk
and the Physician contrasting with the
other two in their respective groups.
These two groups flank the Franklin-
Guildsmen-Cook group, the loosest
group of all. Finally, to round off the
first division, come the Parson and the
Plowman, who draw it all together by
recalling the integrity of the first group.

Arthur W. Hoffman treats the
General Prologue from a less usual
angle in Chaucer's Prologue to Pz7-
grimage: The Two Voices (ELH)
when he discusses the unity of the
Prologue. Particular attention is paid
to the relationship between the Knight
and the Squire, to the Prioress and her
Impenetrable duality of sacred and
secular impulse', and to the pairing
of the Summoner and Pardoner; but
Hoffman shows, in part through this
commentary, how certain themes run
through the Prologue to bind it to-
gether, above all the love generated
by nature which impels (the first indi-
cation of this is in the very beginning
with the reawakening of life in spring),
and the supernatural love which draws
them all to the shrine.

Wei nyne and twenty as the number

of the pilgrims is again under con-
sideration in Canterbury Tales A 24
(MLN\ when Paull F. Baum makes
suggestions to account for this
number.

Trevisa, in his translation of the
Polychronicon, notes a certain Tho-
mas Hay ward whose head had the
same uncrackable quality as that of
Chaucer's Miller. B. J. Whiting, who
points this out in Miller's Head Re-
visited (MLN), has found a Thomas
Hayward mentioned elsewhere.

The same plan has been followed
in Chaucer: The Knight's Tale, B by
J. A. W. Bennett as that adopted by
R. T. Davies in Chaucer: The Pro-
logue to the Canterbury Tales, the
companion volume in the series, Har-
rap's English Classics (YW xxxiv. 58).
Certain parts are actually reprinted
from the earlier volume, as a note
acknowledges, though the examples
here are naturally drawn from the
Knight's Tale; a few additions and
omissions are also to be observed. The
general essay on the Knighfs Tale, in
which a comparison is drawn between
the versions of Chaucer and Boccaccio
to help the student to appreciate Chau-
cer's achievement, ends with a useful
summary of the Teseida. In addition
to discussion of more difficult points
of translation, the Notes contain com-
ments on style, and on the influences
to be discerned both from other writers
and also from Chaucer's other works,
such as his translation of Boethius.

The text is based on the Ellesmere
manuscript but contains certain modi-
fications in spelling (e.g. / for y), and
such seem to account for a few of the
mistakes in the alphabetical arrange-
ment of the Glossary. These, together
with occasional mistakes in references
to the text elsewhere, are blemishes in
a book which should otherwise prove
useful to the younger student.

8 Chaucer: The Knight's Tale, ed. by
J. A. W. Bennett. Harrap. pp. 205. 65. 6d.

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

61

James J. McKenzie A Chaucerian
Emendation (NQ) suggests that soor
(CT I [A], 1454) should be emended to
sorwe. Johnstone Parr quotes in Chau-
cer's 'Cherles Rebellyng' (MLN) two
passages, from Albohazen Haly and
Guido Bonatus respectively, which
suggest that the cherles rebellyng (CT
I [A], 2459) may be simply one of the
usual effects of Saturn's influence,
and need not refer to the Peasants'
Revolt.

The word uerye (in some editions
verye) (CT I [A], 3485) has been a
puzzle to editors, but, if read as nerye
(OE. nerian) as E. T. Donaldson pro-
poses in Chaucer's 'Miller's Tale' } A
3483-6 (MLN), some sense may be
made of the line. W. Arthur Turner
suggests in Chaucer's 'Lusty Malyne'
(NQ) that both Malyne's eagerness
and also Aleyn's confidence in her ac-
ceptance of him in the Reeve's Tale
may be attributed to the fact that she
had a 'camus' nose, and hence was
under Venus's influence.

True appreciation of the Wife of
Bath's Tale comes only when it is re-
garded as an extension of the Wife's
Prologue, asserts Francis G. Towns-
end in Chaucer's Nameless Knight
(MLR). If it is treated as a simple
'Arthurian' romance, then it is felt to
be an anticlimax after the Prologue.
Townsend shows how Chaucer has
carefully built up the knight into a
consistent character, and turned the
tale into a resolution of the Prologue,
an expression of the hopes and dreams
with regard to marriage of Dame
Alice herself, who is the real speaker
in many lines of the tale.

D. W. Robertson, Jr., explaining
Why the Devil wears Green (MLN),
would connect the green garb of the
devil, who in the Friar's Tale (CT III
[D], 1382) is hunting the Summoner,
with the fact that green was the colour
for a hunter, rather than with the Cel-
tic underworld. In Chaucer's 'Wan-

angles' (NQ) Thomas P. Harrison
notes that Skeat was wrong in think-
ing the venym of the waryangles (CT
III [D], 1408) meant simply 'spite'.
Both Speght and Giraldus Cambren-
sis mention the poison of the bird.
Harrison also gives possible etymolo-
gies for Giraldus's name for the birds
croeriae.

J. Burke Severs queries Did Chau-
cer Rearrange the Clerk's Envoy?
(MLN), and then proceeds to examine
the evidence for the belief held by
Manly and Carleton Brown that, in
the case of the Clerk's Envoy, manu-
scripts of the type d* represent Chau-
cer's early intention, El manuscripts his
latest. In the course of his examination
Severs maintains that the El type is the
more smoothly flowing, since in the
d* arrangement hem (I. 1201) has no
'perceptible antecedent', and thus on
this count d* is unlikely to have been
early. The order of the stanzas in d*
Severs attributes to the scribe of Vd
(proved in other instances to have
been untrustworthy), who omitted the
Archewives stanza through an eye-
slip, and then tacked it on at the end.
In the case of the Host stanza, usually
found in the El manuscripts, there is
no awkwardness felt at its inclusion
in the light of this new theory, as was
the case when the El version was as-
sumed to be a revision. The conclu-
sions drawn in this article are, Severs
points out, 'in general accord with the
history and relationships of the manu-
scripts'.

In the opinion of A. A. Prins, writ-
ing Notes on the Canterbury Tales
(3) (Eng Stud), it is unlikely that the
interpretations given by Skeat and
OED, which suggest that a tregetour
is 'one who either uses mechanical
contrivances or sleight of hand', are
correct in the case of CT V [F], 1141
and 1143. After studying other ex-
amples of this word in Chaucer and
elsewhere, he decides that tregetour

62

MIDDLE ENGLISH; CHAUCER

means 'a magician who causes illu-
sions'.

Although in Analogues in Cheriton
to the Pardoner and His Sermon
(JEGP) Albert C. Friend draws paral-
lels with the Pardoner's Prologue and
Tale from the sermons of Odo of
Cheriton (d. 1245-6), he does not claim
that Chaucer necessarily had access to
these. Rather does he believe that
Cheriton's exempla lived on and were
repeated in other sermons of Chau-
cer's day. A close parallel is found to
the Pardoner's bidding that no woman
who had committed adultery should
kiss his relics. There is a picture of
the tavern as the devil's temple, and
it is a place for gamblers and for
swearing; and Cheriton particularly
mentions the evils of the house of
Roncesvalles, which were still to be
found, as Chaucer shows, at the Eng-
lish cell.

In answering the query Was there a
play on the martyrdom of Hugh of Lin-
coln? (MLN), Roger Sherman Loomis
removes all grounds for J. M. Manly 's
beliefs concerning a play about the
boy. St. Hugh of Lincoln, which
Manly thought Chaucer might have
heard of. The St. Hugh who was meant
was a Bishop, and ludendo refers to
the playing of hymns on an instru-
ment and not to a play in which the
hymns were incorporated. (See p. 54.)

The usual interpretation of Sir
Thopas is as a burlesque on popular
romance and Flemish knighthood.
While agreeing that this is part of the
purpose, Arthur K. Moore shows in 'Sir
Thopas' as Criticism of Fourteenth-
Century Minstrelsy (JEGP) how, even
more, does it represent a criticism of
the degeneracy of the minstrels' art. In
theme and style it is debased beyond
the lowest point to which any known
popular romances descend, and by its
contrast the tale of Melibee, just as
much as the Host's violent interrup-
tion, condemns its degeneracy. There

are many signs that in the fourteenth
century the minstrels' position was be-
coming insecure, and Sir Thopas indi-
cates both judgement on the minstrel
art, and also contrast with the work of
a man of book-learning, whose tales,
even if from oral sources, were pro-
ducts of a conscious art

In Chaucer: 'Heigh Ymaginacioun'
(MLAO Victor M. Hamm shows that
the phrase (CT VII. 3217: B, 4407)
may be a reference to the Platonic pro-
phetic view of the imagination which
was opposed to the Aristotelian view.
Dante uses the exact Italian equivalent
of Chaucer's phrase.

Charles Dahlberg, writing on Chau-
cer's Cock and Fox (JEGP), follows
up two articles noticed last year [The
'Moralite' of the Nun's Priest's Ser-
mon, by Mortimer J. Donovan (YW
xxxiv. 68), and Chaucer and the Friars,
by Arnold Williams (YW xxxiv. 64)]
in his reconsideration of the Nun's
"Priest's Tale, and he presents more
precise identifications than Donovan's
article suggested. Dahlberg mentions
two French tales which lead him to
suppose that in naming his fox *Rus-
sel' Chaucer had the Franciscans in
mind, because of the name's connex-
ion with those friars. Through this the
tale may be seen to reflect to some
degree the current controversy men-
tioned by Williams between the
secular clergy and the friars. Such an
identification is more precise than the
usual one of the fox as heretic or
devil. The identification of the cock
as priest is equally dependent on a
long tradition, and the changes made
from the sources of the tale (among
them the equation of the widow with
the Church here Dahlberg supports
Donovan) serve to reinforce the iden-
tifications. The Vice of Sloth is a key
concept, and the underlying idea is
that, should the cock-priest prove sus-
ceptible to the flattery of the fox-friar
through a state of slothfulness when,

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

63

not only on his own account, but
also on that of others, he should
be wakeful, he is likely to lose his
existence.

Robert F. Gibbons's article, Does
the Nun's Priest's Epilogue contain a
Link? (S in Ph), is ,a development from
an article by Robert A. Pratt [The
Order of the 'Canterbury Tales'
(PMLA Ixvi [1951])], as Gibbons fol-
lows up Pratt' s belief that the Nun's
Priest's Epilogue may represent the
opening of a link, the rest of which
has been lost, between the Nun's
Priest's Tale and the Wife of Bath's
Tale. Gibbons has found the weight
of opinion in favour of regarding the
Epilogue as genuine, apart from the
last two lines. The six additional
lines of the Epilogue, found in four
manuscripts, are generally con-
sidered spurious, but Gibbons, in
replying to the objections of Manly
and Rickert, would retain them as
genuine.

The main argument is based on the
procedure likely to have been fol-
lowed by early scribes. Apart from
two cases, where the manuscripts are
to be rejected on other grounds, the
Epilogue is found only before a female
pilgrim is introduced, and Gibbons
supposes that in the other instances
(where a male followed) it was re-
jected because of its evident unsuit-
ability. There would have been no
need for rejection if another (1. 3462),
with its vague neuter gender, had been
original, as it might be expected to
make the Epilogue suitable for male
or female. This word, it is suggested,
was substituted by some scribe for
wy/, because in the order of the tales
in front of that scribe the Wife's tale
was already told; and the scribe re-
sponsible for nonne knew that the
Second Nun's Tale was to follow.
Gibbons maintains an original wv/-
reading because of the close dramatic
connexion felt by some to exist be-

tween the tales of the Nun's Priest and
the Wife of Bath.

LI. 352-3 of the Second Nun's Tale
are generally assumed to be merely a
lengthy way of saying that the Pope
baptized Valerian's brother, Tiburce;
but Cyril A. Reilly, writing on Chau-
cer's Second Nun's Tale: Tiburce's
Visit to Pope Urban (MLN), regards
it as quite clear that the Pope also
administered the sacrament of confir-
mation. He puts forward a reason for
the usual belief, and also disposes of
a difficulty in the way of his own in-
terpretation.

J. D. Elliott thinks that the Cook
was perhaps not unknown to the Man-
ciple, and so the Manciple's Tale may
contain a covert warning to the Cook
not to tell what he knows of the Man-
ciple's shady dealings in the past, for it
emphasizes the fate of one who told the
unpleasant truth. To Elliott, discuss-
ing The Moral of the Manciple's Tale
(NQ), the repetition of 'my son',
though apparently a quotation from
the Manciple's mother, seems in real-
ity to be an attempt to impress the
warning on the inebriated Cook.

The puzzling scriptural allusion
made by the Parson to an utterance
of Moses (Robinson, p. 283) is shown
by A. L. Kellogg in ( Seith Moyses by
the Devel': A Problem in Chaucer's
Parson's Tale (Revue Beige de Philo-
logie et d'Histoire [1953]) to owe its
peculiar form to a commentary such
as the unpublished Summa de Officio
Sacerdotis of Richard de Wethering-
sett, which was composed about
1218-35.

3. 'Troilus and Criseyde"

Sir Francis Kynaston, who in the
seventeenth century translated Troilus
and Criseyde into Latin, calls that
work s a most admirable and inimit-
able Epicke poeme'. Bertram Joseph,
in Troilus and Criseyde (ES) considers

64

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

how far this judgement is applicable,
concluding that 'Troilus and Criseyde
may not be exactly what we should
call an epic today; yet there is without
a doubt much in it that justifies Kyn-
aston in his comment'. To a great ex-
tent the essay is a further discussion
of the story in the light of the code of
courtly love, and shows how the three
main 'characters were motivated by the
high ideals of that code. By 'using a
heroic setting peopled with heroic per-
sonages, Chaucer manages to expound
his ideal even though it is a denuncia-
tion of theirs' when he shows the two
religions, alike in many respects, alike
in demands for faith, courage, and
humility; but the true religion only is
powerful against Fortune: the religion
of love renders its devotees ever more
vulnerable.

The position of Calchas in the ver-
sions of the Troilus story of Benoit,
Guido, Boccaccio, and Chaucer is the
subject of an article, Calchas in the
Early Versions of the Troilus Story
(Tulane Studies in English), by R. M.
Lumiansky who reaches the conclu-
sion that 'for each of the four writers
Calchas serves as the primary device
for linking the Troilus story with the
tale of Troy'. Benoit and Guido pre-
sent Calchas as the divinely informed
counsellor to the Greeks (this is em-
phasized in a comparison of the ver-
sions of the scene in which Calchas
asks for the exchange of Criseyde) who
deserts before the Greek armada sails.
His position is not so well established
in Boccaccio and Chaucer, where it is
his particular connexion with the love-
story rather than with the war in general
that is of consequence, nor are these
two authors at all well disposed to-
wards him. From the time of Benoit
Lumiansky sees 'something of a pro-
gressive down-grading' of Calchas's
character by the four writers. In ad-
dition, the attitude of Troilus and
Criseyde to him varies in the four

versions, and here Boccaccio's lovers
are by far the most outspoken against
him.

The usual misconception regarding
the correspondence between the ver-
sions of the loves of Troilus and Bris-
eida, as found in Benoit and Guido, is
cleared up by Lumiansky in The Story
of Troilus and Briseida according to
Benoit and Guido (Spec). Very few
writers have noticed, or at any rate
appreciated the significance of the
differences between the two works.
In a detailed comparison Lumiansky
demonstrates how Guido has con-
densed Benoit's story, thereby often
losing completely the effect or con-
nexion at which Benoit aimed. The
clue to the two treatments lies in the
titles, the one called Roman, and the
other Historta; 'for Benoit this love
story is an important part of his poem,
which he presents in an extremely skil-
ful' fashion, whereas, in Tatlock's
words, Guido presents c a few scattered
bits lost in a long [work]', for his aim
was 'a prosaic history which recorded
supposedly factual events', and he has
destroyed 'the unity and consistency'
of the love-story of Benoit.

The character of Criseyde continues
to fascinate, and Constance Saintonge
has undertaken a re-examination in In
Defense of Criseyde (MLQ), endea-
vouring to press beyond her infidelity
to the essential woman. With her 'for-
mal and gracious behavior' Criseyde
is the Chaucerian embodiment of what,
by his time, the rules of the code of
courtly love had become: 'rules for
good manners in noble society'. It is
her desire to please everyone, to pre-
serve harmony, that leads to her down-
fall.

David C. Fowler remarks on the un-
satisfactoriness of the translations of
TC I. 390, particularly when loude
is completely ignored. He gives his
translation of wynne as 'complain'
in An Unusual Meaning of 'Win'

MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

65

in Chaucer's 'Troilus and Criseyde'
(MLN).

Although Pandarus's account to
Criseyde of how he learned of Troi-
lus's love for her differs from what
actually happened, in both cases
Arthur E. Hutson in Troilus' Confes-
sion (MLN) finds a resemblance to the
Act of Confession, and also, in the
latter, to the Act of Contrition.

4. Other Poems

Claes Schaar, proposing An Emen-
dation in Chaucer's 'Book of the
Duchess' (Eng Stud), prefers to ac-
count for the order of BD 354-9 by
assuming a partial transposition of
lines, rather than by allowing dream-
psychology or hysterologia to be the
explanation.

R, J. Schoeck disarms criticism in
advance by his avowal that he really
has no case in his article, A Legal
Reading of Chaucer's 'Hous of Fame'
(UTQ). He would, however, insist that
the poem was occasioned by some high
ritualistic ceremonies, a knowledge of
which would explain the dark corners
of the poem. Starting from a hint in
Gerard Legh's Accedence of Arrnorie
(1562), that 'Geffrey e Chaucer buylte
unto him [the horse of honour, the .
Pegasus of the Inner Temple] ... a
house called Fame', Schoeck argues
that it may have been at the Christ-
mas Revels of the Inns of Court that
the poem was first read, and he men-
tions several passages which may show
connexions with the Inner Temple;
the 'man of gret auctorite* might
then be the Constable-Marshal of the
Revels.

Paul G. Ruggiers, writing on Words
into Images in Chaucer's 'Hous of
Fame\ a Third Suggestion (MLN),
considers that Chaucer has a further
debt to Dante. Even though treated
differently by the two poets, an idea
expressed in Paradiso, canto iii, ap-

B 5641 E

pears to underlie the passage in which
Chaucer makes the Eagle explain how,
by assuming the image of the speaker,
words spoken on earth will accommo-
date themselves to 'Geffrey's' sight.

'Musical chords' is the usual meaning
given for cordes (HF ii. 696), but such
a meaning did not exist in Chaucer's
day. James B. Colvert, who discusses
A Reference to Music in Chaucer's
'House of Fame' (MLN), following
C. C. Olson [Chaucer and the Music
of the Fourteenth Century (Spec xvi
[1941])], thinks that 'strings' is meant,
and mentions the many-stringed lute
and harp which may have suggested
the image.

Although in the ParlementofFoules
the three eagles affect courtly idiom,
yet they are not as humble as they
ought to be, nor as they pretend to be.
First Eagle is chosen for further con-
sideration by Gardiner Stillwell ia
Chaucer's Eagles and Their Choice
on February 14 (JEGP\ a continua-
tion of an earlier article [Unity and
Comedy in Chaucer's 'Parlement of
Foules' (JEGP xlix [1950])]; he is the
most successful of the three, but in
his pronouncement that the lady ought
to love him because he loves her so
much, he does not follow courtly love
practice. Nowhere else in Chaucer's
Valentine verse, nor in that of Graun-
son, Gower, Lydgate, or Charles of
Orleans, does Stillwell find, after a
careful examination, any justification
for such an attitude; he concludes that
Chaucer is here simply treating the
attitude of courtly lovers 'with a
shrewd and rather lighthearted
irony'.

Although not claiming either the
Poetica Astronomica of Hyginus or
the De Genealogia Deorum of Boc-
caccio as certain sources for the
Complaint of Mars, D. S. Brewer in
Chaucer's 'Complaint of Mars' (NQ\
points out several noteworthy paral-
lels; and these strengthen the impres-

66 MIDDLE ENGLISH: CHAUCER

sion that Chaucer was writing here 'a scientific account of Chaucer's work,

traditionally allegorical account of comparing it with the Astrolabe, indi-

certain astronomical movements'. cates the sources for Chaucer's material

Derek J. Price discusses Chaucer's and mentions other medieval works

Astronomy (Nature, 20 Sept. 1952) as on the same subject. Thus some idea

it is shown particularly in the Equa- is given of Chaucer's achievement and

torie of the Planetis. He provides a scientific ability.

VI. THE RENAISSANCE

By WILLIAM A. ARMSTRONG

1. General Studies

THE Renaissance', declares C. S.
Lewis, 'can hardly be defined at all
except as "an imaginary entity respon-
sible for anything that the speaker
likes in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries'", and he therefore virtually
excludes the term from his history of
English literature in the sixteenth cen-
tury. 1 Nevertheless his introductory
chapter, 'New Learning and New
Ignorance', illuminates almost all the
phenomena which sober users of the
term have associated with it; the ani-
mistic cosmology of the sixteenth
century; the visions of the golden age
and the natural man evoked by geo-
graphers and explorers; the conflict
between astrology and the new, theo-
logically neutral magic inspired by
the Hermetica and Neoplatonism; the
Latin culture of the humanists curi-
ously combined with their medieval
faith in allegory; the 'catastrophic con-
version' which is the basic experience
of the Puritan, and the peculiar attrac-
tion which Calvinism began to exer-
cise upon thoughtful men during the
later sixteenth century. Lewis inter-
connects these ideas and movements.
He comes close, indeed, to creating the
kind of synthesis that he distrusts. He
overstresses the wlgarityoMe human-
ists and underrates the influence of
economic forces, but this chapter is a
brilliant vindication of his belief that
'the "Renaissance" involved great
losses as well as great gains'.

Though Lewis renounces 'the Re-
naissance*, he finds that 'periods' are

1 English Literature in the Sixteenth Cen-
tury (excluding Drama), by C. S, Lewis.
O.U.P., Oxford History of English Litera-
ture, vol. iii. pp. vii+696. 30$.

'a methodological necessity'. Few will
dispute his reasoned extension of the
'Late Medieval' period to the end of
the reign of Edward VI, but his 'Drab
Age' (lasting from about 1540 until
the late 'seventies) and his 'Golden
Period' (containing the work of 'the
great Elizabethans') are highly con-
troversial terms. 'Drab', he warns the
reader, is not intended to be 'dyslo-
gistic', nor is 'Golden' intended to be
'eulogistic', but the more one reads his
history the more difficult it becomes to
rid one's mind of these connotations.
The chief merit of Drab poetry, he
declares, is a capacity for 'plain state-
ment which carries the illusion of the
speaking voice' and he cites Wyatt as
its progenitor. He ascribes a diversity
of characteristics to 'Golden' poetry.
Surprisingly, we are told that Spenser
never became 'all gold'; Shakespeare's
sonnets represent for Lewis the high-
est achievement of 'the Golden way
of writing'. Some readers may well
think that in being ushered into the
'Drab* category Wyatt is robbed of his
introspective subtleties, Surrey of his
idealism, and Sackville of the plan-
gency of his music. Lewis's discussion
of 'Drab' prose is also questionable in
places. It is strange, for instance, to
find that fewer than two pages are
devoted to Latimer's prose and that
Lewis evidently considers that it is in-
ferior to John Knox's.

The dubious theories of the 'Drab'
and the 'Golden' do not dominate this
ardent, scholarly, and enjoyable book,
however. Lewis is, perhaps, more
essayist than historian, and the Haz-
littian verve and challenge of his sum-
maries and judgements will delight
readers for many years to come.

THE RENAISSANCE

Skelton, he tells us, is 'always in un-
dress'; his charm is essentially that of
'the really gifted amateur'. He presents
Sir Thomas More in new guise as 'our
first great Cockney humorist'. Cran-
mer's controversial prose is colourless
because 'everything he says has been
thrashed out in committee'. Cheke was
'a sharp scrutinizing man of the type
common at Cambridge. . . .' Nashe is
'a great American humorist'; Marlowe
'our great master of the material ima-
gination'. The common reader is right
when he regards Spenser 'almost ex-
clusively as the poet of the Faerie
Queene\ and Lewis admits the 'ab-
sence of pressure or tension' in Spen-
ser's poetry, but his spirited revalua-
tion of the Faerie Queene can hardly
fail to overcome some of the current
prejudices against this poem, though
it is surprising to find that the Spen-
serian stanza is not discussed in a book
which is elsewhere notable for the
accuracy and sensitivity of its treat-
ment of metrical problems. Lewis's
lucid exposition of Hooker's 'Golden'
philosophy has the fine savour of what
it describes. He concludes with a chro-
nological table and a generous but
discriminating bibliography. Misprints
occur on p. 140 ('Ny' for 'My') and
on p. 192 ('Bolney' for 'Bilney'). This
book has been shrewdly reviewed by
Donald Davie (Ess Crit v. 159-64).
(See Chapter IX.)

The significance of the Renaissance
in the development of science is the
main theme of a lucid and scholarly
study by A. R. Hall. 2 He points out
that between the second millennium
B.C., and the Renaissance man's atti-
tude towards nature was determined
by three forces: magic, empirical prac-
tice, and rational thinking. During the
course of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, however, magic was

2 The Scientific Revolution, 1500-1800,
by A. R. Hall. Longmans, pp. xvii+390.
21s.

deprived of its power and reason was
given better opportunities to make use
of the chance discoveries of inventive
craftsmen. His illustration of this
thesis is especially valuable to the
student of literature because of the
skill with which he describes changes
in the climate of opinion during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The strength of medieval traditions
during the sixteenth century is shown
by the general indifference to the
Copernican hypothesis and by the
fact that the astrologer John Dee was
more honoured at the court of Queen
Elizabeth than the truly scientific Wil-
liam Gilbert. Hall's comments on the
nature and limitations of Bacon's in-
fluence are particularly judicious and
original. He provides good reasons for
his belief that Bacon was as interested
in knowledge for its own sake as in its
utilitarian applications. Bacon alone
among his contemporaries 'recognised
the importance of accurate fact-gather-
ing in science'. His system, however,
had little influence upon the empirical
researchers of Europe, 'consequently
modern science did not so much grow
up through Bacon as around him'.

In an interesting survey of Astrono-
mical Text-books in the Sixteenth Cen-
tury, 3 published in 1953, Francis R.
Johnson proves that 'no text-book
widely used in Europe in the sixteenth
century expounded the Copernican
theory, and few even mentioned it'.
Sacrobosco'sSp/zflera, composed about
1225, was still the basis of many com-
mentaries. The chief debate among
astronomers was not the Copernican
theory but the problem of the sup-
posed trepidation of the spheres.

An important mode of Renaissance
thought is discussed in Universal A na-

3 In vol. i of Science, Medicine, and
History: Essays on the Evolution of Scien-
tific Thought and Medical Practice written
in honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ash-
worth Underwood. O.U.P. (1953). Vol. i,
pp. xxxii+563, vol. ii, viii+646. 11. 11s.

THE RENAISSANCE

69

logy and the Culture of the Renais-
sance (JHI) by Joseph A. Mazzeo,
who agrees with those critics who be-
lieve that the doctrines of the micro-
cosm-macrocosm analogy, universal
analogy, and cosmic affinities were
used even more persistently in Renais-
sance than in medieval thought. He
illustrates this belief by referring to
the extensive use of analogy by Neo-
platonic and pantheistic thinkers of the
Renaissance, particularly Giordano
Bruno. Though analogism of this kind
gave way before the inductive science
of the later Renaissance, it was kept
alive by an occult alchemical sym-
bolism which influenced Blake and
Yeats.

The thesis of Fritz Caspari's valu-
able study of sixteenth-century human-
ism 4 is that knights and squires became
the dominant social class in Tudor
England and that the best of them
were influenced by a new humanistic
ideal which combined learning with a
life of action. Though such humanists
and poets as Erasmus, More, Elyot,
Starkey, Sidney, and Spenser favoured
a hierarchical form of society, they
emphasized the value of ability as well
as noble birth and thus aided the rise
of the Tudor gentry to power. Elyot's
The Gouernour occupies a central
place in Caspari's argument because it
shows, in effect, how Erasmus's ideal of
the reasonable and More's Utopian
order of the learned were adapted to
English conditions. Elyot' s 'gouernour'
is a landed gentleman who serves the
state voluntarily. To do so, he studies
the best moral literature of Greece,
Rome, and Italy, and his capacity for
virtuous action is further stimulated
by the study of music and poetry.
Starkey develops the same tradition
when he advises the English gentry to

4 Humanism and the Social Order in
Tudor England, by Fritz Caspari. Chicago :
Univ. of Chicago Press. London: C.U.P.
pp. ix+293. $6.50, 49s.

reside in towns occasionally in order
to enrich their minds. Sidney's Arcadia
illustrates many aspects of the human-
istic ideal; it demonstrates the politi-
cal significance of friendship, contrasts
various types of good and bad rule,
and shows Sidney's preference for a
mixed form of government adminis-
tered by a patriarchal monarch and a
virtuous nobility. Like his humanistic
predecessors, Spenser 'proclaimed the
almost unlimited educability of man'.
The patriotic bias of his humanism is
aptly illustrated by the allegorical ac-
tions of Artegall, which are designed
to represent national policies as abso-
lutely just. At the same time, Spenser
had a profound faith in humane
studies, which is nowhere better shown
than in Mother Hubberds Tale, where
an attack on learning is interpreted
as a symptom of the worst tyranny.
A discerning review of this book ap-
peared in TLS (30 Sept 1955, p. 567).
In a monograph published in 1953, 5
James K. Lowers shows that the rebel-
lion of the Northern Earls in 1 569 was
'the most notable example of treason-
ous activity in the reign of Queen Eliza-
beth'. Exploiting the rich resources of
the Huntington Library, he illustrates
how widely this rebellion was con-
demned by writers of pamphlets, bal-
lads, metrical tracts, histories, and
sermons, including Norton, Munday,
Burghley, Whetstone, Beard, Grafton,
Stow, Holinshed, and the Anglican
clergymen who composed the famous
Homilie Agaynst Disobedience and
Wylful Rebellion (1571). Their con-
demnation of rebellion was based
partly upon biblical texts, particularly
1 Peter ii. 13-15 and Romans xiii. 1-6,
partly upon the law of nature which
ordained that the divinely instituted

5 Mirrors for Rebels: A Study of Polemi-
cal Literature relating to the Northern
Rebellion 7569, by James K. Lowers.
Berkeley and Los Angeles : Univ. of Cali-
fornia Press (1953). London: C.U.P. pp.
vii+130. $2. 155.

70

THE RENAISSANCE

hierarchy of powers should be pre-
served, and partly upon the evidence
of history which proved that rebels
never prospered. Though Lowers has
not discovered any new doctrines he
has certainly shown the wide currency
of these stock arguments. He also sum-
marizes the various counter-arguments
advanced by such Roman Catholic
apologists as Richard Bristow, Wil-
liam Allen, and Robert Parsons. He
provides good reasons for believing
that Spenser intended three episodes
in the fifth book of the Faerie Queene
to be interpreted as references to the
Northern Rebellion, and his discussion
of Daniel, Sidney, and Drayton reveals
some connexions between their work
and this historical event.

Adding to our knowledge of. English
Anti-Machiavellianism before Gentil-
let (NQ) J. C. Maxwell quotes three
hostile references to Machiavelli in
Roger Ascham's A Report and Dis-
course . . . of the Affaires and State of
Germany, which was written in 1553.

Published in 1953, David Harrison's
two volumes on Tudor England 6 hand-
somely fulfil his purposes by providing
the student with facilities for detailed
study and by bridging the gulf between
'the ordinary educated man' and the
specialist. His text is a detailed, accur-
ate, and well-proportioned survey of
the social, cultural, and political his-
tory of the period. Each section is
followed by detailed notes containing
apt quotations from contemporary
sources, and the value of the book is
further enhanced by a wealth of ex-
cellent illustrations, including repro-
ductions of contemporary portraits,
maps, documents, woodcuts, and title-
pages. One or two of Harrison's asser-
tions are questionable, particularly his
claim that the Earl of Essex was 'the
choicest English representative of the

6 Tudor England, by David Harrison.
Cassell (1953). Vol. i, pp. xv+172, vol. ii,
pp, xiii+204. Each vol. 35,y.

Renaissance', but on the whole he is
a judicious guide. His long note on the
Casket Letters, for instance, is an ad-
mirable summary of a difficult subject.
These two volumes would be a valu-
able addition to any sixth-form library.

2. Prose

The American art of compiling and
editing anthologies can seldom have
been better practised than it is in Karl
J. Holzknecht's Sixteenth-Century
English Prose. 7 All the major and a
large number of the minor prose-
writers of the period are generously
represented, together with well-chosen
selections from works of composite
authorship such as sermons, the Books
of Common Prayer, and translations
of the Bible. In the presentation of the
latter, a very valuable innovation is
the parallel printing of nine versions
of the first and twenty-third psalms.
All the texts have been selected from
the best contemporary editions and the
original punctuation, whenever feas-
ible, has been preserved. Footnotes
are discriminatingly used to explain
words and allusions likely to present
difficulties to the educated reader. In
a well-balanced introductory essay of
some forty pages, Holzknecht discusses
the various trends in Tudor prose asso-
ciated with humanism, the Bible, reli-
gious controversy, social criticism,
courtesy books, history, biography,
fiction, literary criticism, and transla-
tion. Each selection, moreover, is pre-
faced by a short biographical and
critical introduction and a useful bib-
liography in which periodical essays
as well as longer works are listed. The
index includes not only the names of
the selected authors and the titles of

7 Sixteenth-Century English Prose, ed.
Karl J. Holzknecht. New York : Harper.
London: Hamish Hamilton. The Harper
English Literature Series, pp. xx+616.
$6. 485.

THE RENAISSANCE

71

their works but also the various topics
discussed in the selections from them.
This book can be recommended as a
model of its kind, (See Chapter IX.)

Discussing Caxton's Game and
Playe of the Chesse in Caxton and his
Two French Sources (MLR), Chris-
tine Knowles proves that Chapters I-
VIII derive mainly from Jean Ferron's
French translation of the Ludus Scac-
corum of Jacobus de Cessolis, that the
remainder derives fromanother French
translation by Jean de Vignay, that
Caxton made use of a manuscript
which combined these French trans-
lations, and that he also made careful
use of a Latin text when he was trans-
lating the first and second parts of the
book. (See Chapter IV.)

In William Blades' Comment on Cax-
ton's 'Reynard the Fox': the Genea-
logy of an Error (NQ\ Donald B.
Sands shows that William Blades and
E. G. Duff were wrong in doubting
whether Caxton's story was a transla-
tion of a prose version published in
Holland in 1479. (See Chapter IV.)

The correspondence between Eras-
mus's basic religious ideas and domin-
ant modes of Renaissance thought is
the subject of Wallace K. Ferguson's
article on Renaissance Tendencies in
the Religious Thought of Erasmus
(JHI). He finds it especially well illus-
trated by Erasmus's emphasis on inner
piety rather than external observances,
his subordination of ceremonies to
charitable works, his assertion that
'the human mind never willed any-
thing vehemently that it could not
accomplish', his rejection of scholastic
dialectic, and his endorsement of the
right of every layman to have access
to' the Scriptures because there is 'no
one who cannot be a theologian'.

Published in 1953, E, E. Reynolds'*
study of Sir Thomas More 8 has been
written to provide a Roman Catholic

8 St. Thomas More, by E. E. Reynolds.
Burns Gates (1953). pp. 390. 25*.

interpretation of his life and works
which will take stock of the materials
which have been unearthed since Fr.
T. E. Bridgett published his biography
of More in 1899. Reynolds has a lucid
style and his fluent chronicle of More's
activities is enhanced by seventeen
splendid reproductions of contempor-
ary drawings and paintings. His apt
and generous quotations from first-
hand sources give a special charm to
his chapters on More's enlightened
education of his family and the genial
patriarchy of his Chelsea household.
His suggestion that London might ac-
cord one of her greatest sons at least
a commemorative tablet is timely in-
deed. Nevertheless, for many readers
R. W. Chambers's biography will
remain the surest guide to More's
personality, achievements, and friend-
ships. Erasmus would not have won
More's affection had he been merely
the vain, vacillating, and timid per-
sonage described by Reynolds. Rey-
nolds's chapter on Utopia also seems
rather partial. He considers that
More's imaginary State c is not, in fact,
an attractive picture' and interprets it
as being primarily an exposition of
the defects of reason when divorced
from revelation, ignoring the shining
contrast which it presents to the Euro-
pean abuses described in Book I of
Utopia. J. H. Hexter's theories about
Utopia are not discussed, though they
are surely more worthy of serious con-
sideration than the Marxist and Im-
perialist interpretations which are dis-
cussed. Correspondingly, Reynolds's
account of More's controversy with
Tyndale is inadequate because no clear
statement of Tyndale's case is given.
On the whole, then, this study is more
valuable as an outline of More's life
than as an analysis of his mind and
works.

Sir Thomas More as Student of
Medicine and Public Health Reformer
is the subject of an essay published in

72

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1953 9 by Sir Arthur MacNalty, who
shows that More probably learnt much
from Linacre and the best physicians
of his day because many images and
references in his works bear witness to
his accurate knowledge of medicine.
More became one of the Commis-
sioners of Sewers in 1514, and the
problem of improving London's water-
supply was evidently in his mind when
he described the provisions made to
secure clean water in the chief city of
his Utopia. The passages in Utopia on
hospitals, abattoirs, communal meals,
municipal nurses, eugenic mating, nur-
sery schools, and industrial welfare
also attest his deep interest in medi-
cine and hygiene.

In Levels of Word-Play and Figura-
tive Signification in More's 'Utopia'
(NQ) R. J. Schoeck notes that More's
Utopia was originally called 'Abraxa*
and argues that this word implied (a)
the superstitious character of the ori-
ginal inhabitants, and (b) the lack of
God's grace among the Utopians.

Examining the themes and styles of
John Longland and Roger Edgeworth,
Two Forgotten Preachers of the Early
Sixteenth Century (RES), J. W. Blench
claims that they are 'of equal rank*
with Fisher and Latimer as preachers.
Though he cannot be said to have
proved this point, his article is a well-
illustrated introduction to his subject.
Longland (1473-1547) became Bishop
of London in 1521; Edgeworth (d.
1560) became Prebendary of Bristol
in 1542. Both sided with the conserva-
tive party of Bonner and Gardiner. In
structure, Longland's sermons usually
follow the medieval pattern of exor-
dium, division of the text, develop-
ment, and conclusion, whereas Edge-
worth's are based upon newer, simpler
methods, sometimes those of Colet. In
style, both use simpler diction than

9 In vol. i of Science, Medicine, and His-
tory., ed. E, Ashworth, Underwood. See
note 3 supra.

Fisher, though Longland is consciously
rhetorical at times, making effective
use of question and answer. Edge-
worth's exempla often appeal, like
Latimer's, to the daily experience of
his congregation, and are more homely
and original than those of Longland.
Their sermons also provide interesting
evidence of the gloomy outlook of
their party: both dwell on the theme
of ubi sunti both think that the sixth
and last age of the world has come;
both revile the body and its desires.
Edgeworth censures the reading of the
Bible by ignorant laymen, and Long-
land represents Purgatory as almost a
second hell, but neither offers much
theological argument.

Marcus L. Loane's contribution to
the history of the English Reforma-
tion consists of five interrelated bio-
graphies. 10 They show, among other
things, that the early reformers came
from a diversity of regions; Thomas
Bilney from East Anglia, William Tyn-
dale from Gloucestershire, Hugh Lati-
mer from Leicestershire, Nicholas
Ridley from Tyneside, and Thomas
Cranmer from the north Midlands.
All had in common a formative period
of study at Cambridge, where several
of them used to meet at the White
Horse Inn, that 'glorious new Jerusa-
lem*, to discuss problems of faith.
They also had in common a belief in
the value of a vernacular Bible and
liturgy. All are therefore of some in-
terest, and three of them are of out-
standing importance, to the student
of literature. 'Little Bilney' left only a
pathetic handful of letters and Ridley's
sacramental theology is laboriously
written, but Tyndale's translations,
Latimer's sermons, and Cranmer's
liturgical compositions rank as the
finest prose of their time, and Loane's
sympathetic and circumstantial bio-

10 Masters of the English Reformation,
by Marcus L. Loane. The Church Book-
room Press, pp. xii+247. \2s. 6d.

THE RENAISSANCE

73

graphics clearly show the close con-
nexion between their writings and the
intense religious convictions for which
they eventually died.

Superseding all earlier accounts of
Hugh Latimer in balance and accuracy
of detail, Allan G. Chester's bio-
graphy 11 is likely to be recognized as
the standard one. Of the forty-three ex-
tant sermons by Latimer, no fewer than
thirty-eight were delivered between
1548 and 1552; as a result, biographers
have tended to give less attention to
the earlier than to the later part of his
long career. Chester's detailed survey
of his early life and thought is there-
fore the more welcome. His careful
assessment of contemporary docu-
ments leads him to fix the date of
Latimer 's birth between 1492 and
1494, and to doubt the veracity of the
account in Harleian 422 of the favour
shown to Latimer by Wolsey. He also
proves that Latimer's Protestantism
developed much more slowly than
some biographers would have us be-
lieve. In a valuable analysis of the
great sermons of 1548-9, Chester
shows that Latimer's attacks on cor-
rupt judges, covetous enclosers, dis-
honest tradesmen, non-preaching pre-
lates, and infant marriages derived
from a passionate belief in a Christian
commonwealth based upon a godly
monarchy and an educated nation
directed by the Bible and honest
preachers. His later sermons are more
concerned with questions of faith,
chiefly because they were designed as
lectures for the servants and house-
hold of the Duchess of Suffolk. Ex-
amining the editions of Latimer's
sermons published in 1549, 1550,
1562, and 1572, Chester shows how
errors of dating occurred and why
the texts were sometimes imperfect

11 Hugh Latimer Apostle to the English,
by Allan G. Chester. Philadelphia: Univ,
of Pennsylvania Press, London: OJJ.P,
pp. ix+261. $6. 485.

transcriptions of what Latimer had
said.

A special supplement on the Bible
issued by The Times amply fulfils the
promise of its title. 12 Three articles
in it are particularly relevant to this
chapter; J. F. Mozley's Translations
before the Authorised Version, a
special correspondent's The Geneva
Bible: Literary Achievement of the
English Protestants, and Norman
Sykes's The Origins of the Authorised
Version.None of these offers newfacts
or interpretations, but each is an ac-
curate and lively account of forces
which did much to improve English
prose during the Tudor and Stuart
periods.

In The GouernourSu: Thomas Elyot
wrongly credited Diogenes the Cynic
with a saying made by Aristippus when
he wrote, 'Diogines the philosopher
seing one without lernynge syt on a
stone/ sayde . . . beholde where one
stone sytteth on an other.' In Dio-
genes and 'The Boke Named the
Gouernouf (MLN) Curt F. Buhler
gives some reasons for believing that
the error derives from Elyot's reading
of a similar passage in De Vita et
mo rib us philosophorum by Walter
Burley (d. c. 1345).

Discussing William Painter's Use of
Mexia (NQ) J. C. Maxwell notes that
Novel i. 26 in the Palace of Pleasure
derives from Claude Gruget's French
version of Pedro Mexia's Silva de
varia leccion, and that Painter may
have used the Italian translation of
Mexia when writing the story of
Timon of Athens, though it is clear
that some of his alterations of the
French are due to his own mother wit

Escaping after several years of
detention in Spain, John Frampton
published between 1577 and 1581 six

12 The Bible: Historical Social, and
Literary Aspects of the Old and New Testa-
ments described by Christian Scholars. The
Times, pp. 32. Is.

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translations of Spanish books, which
are analysed in Lawrence C. Wroth's
article An Elizabethan Merchant and
Man of Letters (HLQ). These transla-
tions contain the first descriptions in
English of the virtues of tobacco and
the sassafras tree, an account of the
coasts of many American regions, a
summary of Marco Polo's travels and
other oriental explorations, and a use-
ful manual for navigators. Frampton
can therefore be ranked with Richard
Eden and Richard Hakluyt as a pro-
pagandist of commercial and colonial
enterprise.

Animal conventions in the non-
religious prose of the later sixteenth
century are the subject of a competent
study by William Meredith Carroll. 13
He begins by showing how these con-
ventional ideas came to the Renais-
sance through four main channels;
'the popular literature of the folk, the
medieval romances, the ancient Greek
and Roman works on natural history,
and the Bible*; and he also discusses
minor tributaries such as heraldry,
emblems, satire, and political poems.
Influential theorists of rhetoric, in-
cluding Erasmus, Sir Thomas Elyot,
and Thomas Wilson, encouraged wri-
ters to make use of these figures from
natural history; so much so, that a
wealth of references to animals occurs
in the educational treatises, collections
of novelle, satirical pamphlets, philo-
sophical essays, pastoral romances,
and realistic tales written by Wilson,
Ascham, Painter, Pettie, Riche, Gos-
son, Lodge, Lyly, Greene, Sidney,
Deloney, and Nashe between 1550
and 1600. The operation of different
conventions sometimes caused certain
animals to be endowed with contrast-
ing qualities. Complications of this
kind were partly due to the moral

13 Animal Conventions in English Renais-
sance Non-Religious Prose (1550-2600), by
William Meredith Carroll. New York:
Bookman Associates, pp. 166. $3.50.

philosophers of the period who some-
times stressed the inferiority of animals
to man and at other times claimed that
certain animals set a good example
to man by being more faithful to the
law of nature. In a useful appendix
Carroll lists the 120 birds, animals,
and reptiles mentioned by his chosen
authors and gives detailed references
to the different qualities ascribed to
them.

3. Poetry

As an anthology Norman E.
McClure's Sixteenth Century English
Poetry 14 maintains the high standard
set in the Harper English Literature
Series by Karl J. Holzknecht's volume
of prose selections, which is discussed
in the preceding section of this chap-
ter. McClure provides not only a series
of generous selections from the work
of the major poets of the period but
also representative poems by lesser-
known writers of miscellanies, sonnets,
broadside ballads, songbooks, satires,
and epigrams. In the section devoted
to epigrams, for instance, there are ex-
amples by Harington, Sir John Davies,
Guilpin, Bastard, Weever, Rowlands,
Heath, Freeman, John Davies of Here-
ford, Taylor, Braithwait, and Parrot.
As many of the poems of such minor
authors as these are not very acces-
sible, the value of the anthology is
obvious. It is further enhanced by a
well-informed introductory essay, by
the biographical and bibliographical
preface to each set of selections, and
by the brief but helpful explanatory
notes. Each selection is either a com-
plete poem or a substantial part of
one; where necessary, a synopsis of
the context is given. The spelling of

14 Sixteenth Century English Poetry, ed.
Norman E. McClure. New York: Harper.
London: Hamish Hamilton. The Harper
English Literature Series, pp. xii-K23. $6.
48*.

THE RENAISSANCE

75

the best early editions is preserved,
and, where feasible, the punctuation
also. It is a pity, perhaps, that the
Faerie Queene is represented only by
the Cantos of Mvtabilitie:, some pas-
sages from earlier parts of Spenser's
epic would have increased the value
of the anthology as a guide to the nar-
rative poetry of the period. Ten pages
are devoted to an excerpt fromHaring-
ton's translation of Orlando Furioso,
which hardly merits such generous
representation. But these are minor
criticisms of a very competent and
.painstaking editor. (See Chapter IX.)

The hypotheses about a love affair
between Sir Thomas Wyatt and Anne
Boleyn advanced by A. K. Foxwell (in
1911) and Sir Edmund Chambers (in
1933) are discounted by Richard Har-
rier in his Notes on Wyatt and Anne
Boleyn (JEGP). What Miss Foxwell
assumed to be a fragmentary confes-
sion by Anne inscribed upon a con-
temporary manuscript of Wyatt's
poems is, Harrier indicates, nothing
more than an incomplete quotation
from one of the poems by an unknown
scribe. Sir Edmund's theory depends
upon a passage in a letter by Eustace
Chapuys, but Harrier maintains that
its gossip cannot be reconciled with the
dates of events in Wyatt's life. Harrier
thinks that Wyatt courted Anne, but
without the success suggested by these
earlier investigators.

Published in 1953, Sergio Baldi's La
Poesia di Sir Thomas Wyatt, il primo
petrarchista inglese 15 is a valuable con-
tribution to the study of Wyatt's life
and art. Though he has discovered that
Wyatt's lyric 'Lament my loss, my
labour, and my pain' is a free adapta-
tion of Petrarch's sonnet *Voi ch'ascol-
tate in rime sparse il suono', his main
concern is to discuss Wyatt's poetic

15 La Poesia di Sir Thomas Wyatt, il
primo petrarchista inglese, by Sergio Baldi.
Florence : Le Monnier (1953). pp. xii+254.
L950.

technique rather than his Italian
sources. He finds few significant con-
nexions between Wyatt's poems and
biographical facts; in his opinion,
Wyatt's interest in Anne Boleyn ceased
in 1527 and only a small group of
highly Italianate poems can have been
addressed to her. Reviewing the manu-
scripts and editions of Wyatt's poems,
he emphasizes the importance of MS.
Egerton 2711 and praises Kenneth
Muir's edition, though he notes cer-
tain unsolved textual problems. Baldi
believes that Wyatt was a keen student
of the prosody as well as the themes
of Italian poetry and he shows how
much of the alleged irregularity of his
rhythms disappears if Italian prin-
ciples of elision, synaloepha, and syn-
cope are applied to his metres. He also
suggests that Wyatt substituted spon-
dees for iambs more often than has
been appreciated and gives good
reasons for believing that Wyatt
probably learnt more about poetic
technique from Serafino Aquilano
and Alamanni than he did from
Petrarch.

A different solution to the problem
of Wyatt's rhythms is offered by
Robert O. Evans in Some Aspects of
Wyatt's Metrical Technique (JEGP),
where he argues that in Wyatt's usage
the inflections c -eth' and ( -es' may be
elided, and that these two elisions
account for most of the syllabic diffi-
culties presented by his verse. The
final ( -e', he claims, 'regardless of how
it is explained, does not occur often
enough to make much difference' to
Wyatt's metrics. He cannot accept
Alan Swallow's thesis (MP, Aug. 1950)
that Wyatt abandoned syllabic regu-
larity at times and employed instead
the accentual 'broken-back' rhythms
found in certain medieval poems. He
admits, however, that an impression
of metrical irregularity is produced by
the large proportion of inverted feet in
Wyatt's lines, and by the comparative

76

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frequency with which he allows short
lines to interrupt his rhythms.

In Blame Not Wyatt's Lute (Ren
News) John H. Long throws an in-
teresting sidelight on Wyatt's lyrical
technique when he describes his dis-
covery in the Folger Library of the
lute score to which Wyatt's 'Blame
Not My Lute' was sung, and points
out that discords in it are deliberately
used to emphasize certain words in
the text, and that Thomas Morley re-
commended the use of discords in this
way to 'expresse any word signifying
hardnesse, crueltie, bitterness. . . .'

Rudolf Gottfried reveals yet an-
other of Wyatt's Italian sources in his
note on Sir Thomas Wyatt and Pietro
Bembo (NQ), where he shows that 'the
wording, imagery, and central theme'
of Bembo's lyric *Voi mi poneste in
foco' are reproduced to an appreciable
extent in Wyatt's 'At last withdrawe
yowre crueltie'. A comparison of the
two poems shows that Wyatt's rime
scheme is less skilful than Bembo's,
that Wyatt was chiefly attracted by the
paradoxes in the Italian poem, and
that certain obscurities in his adapta-
tion derive from his characteristic
desire to blame the lady, not Love, for
his suffering.

Discussing Sixteenth Century Poetry
and the Common Reader. The Case
of Thomas Sackville (Ess Crii) Donald
Davie suggests that the common reader
of sixteenth-century poetry stands less
in need of a knowledge of contem-
porary theories of rhetoric than some
critics have maintained. He then ana-
lyses a passage from Sackville's Com-
plaint to show how syntax can create
'a sort of eloquence which the rhetori-
cians do not recognise' and points to
affinities between Sackville and Augus-
tan poets. In a 'critical forum' in a
later issue of the same periodical, J. B.
Broadbent points out that syntactical
devices form part of Puttenham's
teaching of rhetoric and claims that

'rhetorical analysis is only an older
name for "practical criticism" '. Davie
replies that Broadbent and Puttenham
err in making 'ingenuity of combina-
tion' a major critical criterion. Sum-
ming up, F. W. Bateson says that
Broadbent is right when he suggests
that modern criticism needs more criti-
cal terms but that he fails to relate his
rhetorical analyses of short passages
to the total effect of the poem in which
they occur.

A Tudor scholar who enjoyed high
repute until the eighteenth century is
the subject of Lawrence V. Ryan's
article on Walter Haddon: Elizabethan
Latinist (HLQ). Haddon (1516-71)
was a distinguished servant of the uni-
versities and the State, but was chiefly
famous as a Latin stylist who wrote
orations, epistles, and poems. The
most popular of his poems expresses
his conviction that the English people
are the chosen race destined to lead
the world to Sion under the leader-
ship of the Tudor dynasty. It thus an-
ticipates some of the patriotic themes
of Peele, Markham, Daniel, Spenser,
and Shakespeare.

A. G. Dickens's note on Peter
Moone: The Ipswich Gospeller and
Poet (NQ) reveals that Moone was
imprisoned for sedition and released
in 1554, and that in 1561-2 he headed
a troupe of players at Ipswich. His
troupe may have acted Bale's Kynge
John before Queen Elizabeth in
August 1561.

In a note on Gascoigne and the
Term 'Sonnet Sequence' (NQ) Wil-
liam T. Going claims that George
Gascoigne was the first writer to use
the word 'sequence' with reference to
a set of sonnets, and points out that
he used additional half-lines to link
some of his sonnets together. He also
notes that the term 'sonnet sequence'
did not become current until the Vic-
torian period.

Relentlessly documenting The Judge-

THE RENAISSANCE

77

ment of Paris as a Device of Tudor
Flattery (NQ) John D. Reeves lists
more than twenty references to this
myth for purposes of compliment in
Tudor poems and plays.

Distinguishing the 'personal' from
the 'pastoral' elegy at the outset of
The Principal Rhetorical Conventions
in the Renaissance Personal Elegy
(S in Ph) A. L. Bennett shows that
most poems of this kind attempted
not only to lament the deceased but
to praise him and to comfort the be-
reaved. To fulfil this triple purpose,
the poets borrowed certain devices
from classical and contemporary trea-
tises on rhetoric, namely, biographical
methods of praise, discourses on the
cardinal virtues as exhibited by the
deceased, and conventional themes of
consolation. Bennett quotes copiously
and aptly from TotteTs Miscellany,
Baldwin, Turberville, Whetstone, Gas-
coigne, and later Elizabethan poets to
illustrate this argument.

4. Drama

Involved descriptions and lengthy
accounts of numerous plots make it
difficult to find a unifying thesis in'
Daniel C. Boughner's survey of the
braggart in Renaissance Comedy. 16
He finds the original of the bragging
soldier, 'the paunchy and amorous
reveler with a coward's heart beneath
the hero's dress he has assumed', in
Dionysus in Aristophanes' The Frogs.
This character-type is essayed no
fewer than eight times in the extant
Roman comedies, and three kinds of
braggart occur in Italian comedies of
the sixteenth century; the modified
miles gloriosus, the swaggering cap-
tain in the commedia delVarte, and the
boastful Spanish dandy. Considering

16 The Braggart in Renaissance Comedy,
by Daniel C. Boughner. Minneapolis : Univ.
of Minnesota Press. London : O.U.P. pp.
ix+328, $5. 405.

the title of his book, one is surprised
that Boughner's discussion of English
examples of the braggart is limited to
miracle and morality plays. He dis-
agrees with those critics who regard
the Herods and Pilates of the miracle
plays as English counterparts to the
miles gloriosus; he thinks that they
were intended to be serious charac-
ters. On the other hand, he sees in
Watkin, the cowardly but boastful
courtier in the Ludus Coventriae, a
type subsequently developed in Ther-
sites and Skelton's Courtly Abusion.
In certain moralities the Vice repre-
sents a bragging soldier or a boastful
courtier; Youth in the play of the
same name is an example of the latter
type, 'in a line of development that
leads from Mankind in The Castle of
Perseverance through M edwall's Pride
to Jonson's Fastidious Brisk'. Bough-
ner concludes with a discussion of
Spanish examples of the braggart
species.

In 'Johan Johan' and its Debt to
French Farce (JEGP), Stanley Sultan
argues against those critics, particu-
larly Karl Young and Ian Maxwell,
who gave currency to the belief that
John Heywood borrowed wholesale
'the plot, type, characters, and main
incidents' of Johan Johan from the
French play La Farce Nouvelle Tres
Bonne et Fort Joyeuse De Pernet Qui
Va au Vin. In a letter to the same
periodical on the same subject, Wil-
liam Elton points out that he proved
in a letter to TLS (24 Feb. 1 950, p. 1 28)
that Johan Johan is, in fact, *a fairly
literal translation, with some minor
differences, of another French play,
Farce Nouvelle Tres Bonne et Fort
Joyeuse du Paste (see YW xxxi. 104).

T. W. Craik points out in Some
Notes on Thomas Lupton's 'All for
Money' (NQ) that in this moral inter-
lude the episodes concerning the ac-
quittal of an infanticide and the harsh
treatment of a petty thief by a corrupt

78

THE RENAISSANCE

judge were borrowed from one of
Latimer's sermons. He suggests that
Lupton probably wrote the play for
'a company of adult actors who pre-
ferred not to play female parts'. Struc-
turally, the play presents a series of
debates illustrated by scenes showing
the contemporary forms of the ageless
sins which are censured. Hence its
debt to the contemporary sermon
probably goes much deeper than the
borrowing from Latimer.

Two valuable articles by Irving
Ribner are closely connected. In The
Tudor History Play: An Essay in
Definition (PMLA\ he provides sound
arguments for a summary of the basic
purposes of Tudor history plays which
runs as follows: Those stemming from
classical and humanist philosophies of
history include (1) a nationalist glorifi-
cation of England, (2) a concern with
contemporary affairs, both national
and foreign, (3) a use of past events as
a guide to political action in the pre-
sent, (4) a use of history as documen-
tation for secular political theory, and
(5) a study of past political disaster as
an aid to Stoical fortitude in the pre-
sent. Those stemming from medieval
Christian philosophy of history in-
clude (6) illustration of the providence
of God as the ruling force in human
and primarily political affairs, and
(7) exposition of a rational plan in
human events which might affirm the
wisdom and justice of God.* He there-

fore arrives at this definition: 'History
plays are those which use for any com-
bination of these purposes material
drawn from national chronicles and
assumed by the dramatist to be true,
whether in the light of our modern
knowledge it actually be true or not.'
In Morality Roots of the Tudor
History Play (Tulane Studies in Eng-
lish) Ribner shows that Skelton's Mag-
nyfycence is the first English play in
which the allegorical method of the
morality is applied to problems of
secular politics. Magnyfycence repre-
sents Henry VIII; Counterfet Coun-
tenaunce and Crafty Conueyance the
machinations of Wolsey's party; Cyr-
cumspeccyon and Perseveraunce the
virtues of Norfolk's party. Political
allegories are also used in such later
moralities as Albion Knight and Res-
publica. John Bale's Kynge John re-
presents the next stage in the develop-
ment of the Tudor history play; on
one level it is a political morality after
the style of those just mentioned, with
Yngelonde as the central figure: on
another level, however, it is a history
play about King John in which chro-
nicle material is used to glorify Eng-
land, to assert Tudor doctrines of
absolutism and passive obedience, and
to throw light upon a contemporary
problem, namely, the secession from
Papal rule. In Kynge John, therefore,
we see the first English history play
emerging from the morality.

VII. SHAKESPEARE

By T. S. DORSCH

1. Editions

THE much-heralded Yale Facsimile of
the First Folio 1 is a serious disappoint-
ment. Helge Kokeritz's prefatory claim
that it 'reproduces as faithfully and
accurately as modern techniques per-
mit the excellent copy in the posses-
sion of the Elizabethan Club of Yale
University' cannot be accepted as rea-
sonable. The line-offset process of re-
production which is used is far less
faithful and accurate than either col-
lotype or screened offset. Unlike them,
it reproduces no values; any mark on
the original document above a certain
intensity appears as black, anything
below this intensity as white, so that
marks and stains and show-through
which register at all do so with dazz-
ling blackness, often obliterating por-
tions of text which the other processes
would reproduce as legibly as they
appear in the original. The choice of
line offset was no doubt dictated by
circumstances the prohibitive cost of
collotype for so large a facsimile, and
the fact that Yale was not equipped to
use screened offset; but it was a most
unfortunate choice, since it has re-
sulted in an entirely untrustworthy
text. The removal of stains and show-
through, 'in the interest of legibility',
has caused, not 'minor discrepancies
between the original and the Fac-
simile', but a considerable number of
serious discrepancies; it has obliterated
or rendered illegible many letters and
marks of punctuation, and made neces-

1 Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies,
Histories, & Tragedies. A facsimile edition
prepared by Helge Kokeritz, With an In-
troduction by Charles Tyler Prouty. Yale
U.P. (1954). O.U.P. (1955). pp. xlix-f 889.
$12.50. 84^.

sary some retouching the nature and
extent of which cannot be gauged.
Charles Tyler Prouty's historical and
bibliographicallntroductionisscarcely
adequate, nor is it always clear or ac-
curate. Among authoritative reviews
which discuss this volume in some de-
tail may be mentioned that of Fredson
Bowers (Mod Phil), and that of an
anonymous reviewer in TLS (14 Oct.
1955).

From Charles Jasper Sisson comes
a new single-volume edition of the
complete works of Shakespeare, 2 to-
gether with Sir Thomas More in a text
prepared by Harold Jenkins. For each
play Sisson provides short introduc-
tory notes on its date, sources, and
dramatic qualities, and a list of read-
ings which he accepts, or introduces,
in disputed passages; and there is a
general Introduction in which Harold
Jenkins writes on Shakespeare's life,
W. M. T. Nowottny on the canon, the
text and Shakespearian scholarship,
Terence Spencer on the Elizabethan
theatre and its actors, Hilda Hulme
on Shakespeare's language, and Bruce
Pattison on music and masque, with
particular reference to Shakespeare.
Any final judgement on Sisson's text,
whether as a whole or in individual
plays, must in fairness to him await
the publication of his New Readings
in Shakespeare.

Thomas Marc Parrott's edition 3 of

2 William Shakespeare: The Complete
Works. Including a Biographical and
General Introduction, Glossary, and Index
of Characters, Ed. by Charles Jasper Sisson.
London : Odhams Press. New York : Harper.
pp.Hi+1376. 25s. $4.50.

3 Shakespeare: Twenty-three Plays and
the Sonnets, with General Introduction,
Special Introductions for Each Play, and

80

SHAKESPEARE

twenty-three of the plays, together
with the Sonnets edited by Edward
Hubler, was first published in 1938. In
a revised edition the text and annota-
tions have been overhauled, stage-
histories brought up to date, and more
than forty pages of well-chosen illus-
trations added.

The Comedies, in the text of the
Collins Tudor Shakespeare edited by
Peter Alexander, are published in a vol-
ume 4 which contains also Alexander's
General Introduction, his introductory
material to the Comedies generally
and individually, and a glossary.

Four plays have been added to the
revised Arden series. In his Antony
and Cleopatra 5 M. R. Ridley has left
substantially unchanged R. H. Case's
excellent Introduction to the original
Arden edition of 1906, merely adding
fresh material to the appraisal of the
play and its characters; he has also
retained the bulk of Case's annota-
tions, modifying them where this
seemed necessary and providing some
helpful new glosses. He has made very
few verbal changes in Case's text; but
in the belief that 'in the punctuation
of the early texts we have, pretty cer-
tainly, at least "playhouse" punctua-
tion, and very possibly a great deal of
Shakespeare's own', he has preserved
'an unusually high degree of the F
punctuation'. This departure from
normal modern practice he justifies in
his Preface and in an Appendix. In
other Appendixes he discusses the
mislineation of the Folio and some
problems in the staging of the play,
and provides the source-passages from
North's Plutarch.

Notes by Thomas Marc Parrott. Associate
Editors, Edward Hubler and Robert Stock-
dale Telfer. Revised Edition. New York:
Scribners (1953). pp. xv+1116. $6.

4 Comedies: William Shakespeare, ed. by
Peter Alexander. Collins, pp. 768. Is.

5 Antony and Cleopatra, ed. by M. R.
Ridley. (The Arden Shakespeare.) Methuen.
pp. lvi+285. Us.

E. A. J. Honigmann's text of King
John* is more conservative than is cus-
tomary, but his treatment is backed
by sound scholarship which is evident
also in his excellent annotations. In his
Introduction he writes well about the
imagery, and about John as the dra-
matic hero of a play which is primarily
the 'study of a virtuoso politician'. But
the most interesting, and controver-
sial, sections of the Introduction and
Appendixes are those which deal with
the sources and the date of composi-
tion. Hitherto The Troublesome
Raigne of lohn King of England,
which was published in 1 591, has been
generally accepted as the undoubted
source of King John. F. P. Wilson, it
is true, suggested in his Clark Lectures
for 1951 (see FfFxxxiv. 120) that both
plays may be based on a lost play,
perhaps even a very early play of
Shakespeare himself. Honigmann ar-
gues, with much illustration, that The
Troublesome Raigne is a corrupt ver-
sion of John, later in date, and bearing
the marks of a 'bad Quarto'. He would
therefore push the composition of
John back to 1590/1. He conducts his
case with ability, but it must be said
that his revolutionary views, with their
implications with respect to the canon,
have not met with any general accep-
tance.

In his edition of The Tempest 1 Frank
Kermode is also conservative in his
handling of the Folio text. He argues
effectively against the various theories
of revision and disintegration that have
been advanced, and rejects the allegori-
cal or apocalyptic interpretations of
the last hundred years. The Tempest,
he claims, is first and foremost a pas-
toral drama whose main underlying
theme is the opposition 'between the

6 King John, ed. by E. A. J. Honigmann.
(The Arden Shakespeare.) Methuen. pp.
lxxv+176. 18^.

7 The Tempest, ed. by Frank Kermode.
(The Arden Shakespeare.) Methuen. pp.
lxxxviii+167. 165.

SHAKESPEARE

81

worlds of Prospero's Art, and Cali-
ban's Nature. Caliban is the core of
the play; like the shepherd in formal
pastoral, he is the natural man against
whom the cultivated man is measured.'
To this theme Kermode devotes the
greater part of his long Introduction;
but he also provides sections on the
structure, with particular reference
to the masque-elements, and on the
poetry.

J. H. Walter, the editor of the new
Arden Henry F, 8 accepts the view that
the copy for the Folio text of this play
was in the main Shakespeare's foul
papers, but that some parts of it 'may
have been a playhouse transcript'.
Going on to discuss what he regards
as 'textual disturbances' in the Folio,
he recapitulates the not fully convinc-
ing arguments which he put forward
in MLR in 1946, that in an earlier
version Falstaff accompanied Henry
to France, and had quite a large part
in the play, and that in response to
opposition from the descendants of
Sir John Oldcastle several scenes were
rewritten so that the fat knight should
no longer appear in person. Summing
up the divergent critical opinions of
Henry, Walter sees him as Shake-
speare's type of the Christian Prince.
When he expatiates on the 'epic nature'
of the play, he perhaps makes too little
of the essentially dramatic qualities
which have always made it a resound-
ing success in the theatre.

Richard HP is the latest addition to
the New Shakespeare series edited by
John Dover Wilson. This volume illus-
trates admirably the newest develop-
ments in textual scholarship. Wilson
accepts the textual history proposed
for the play by D. L. Patrick, and the

s King Henry V, ed. by J. H. Walter.
(The Arden Shakespeare.) Methuen. pp.
xlvii+167. 15*.

9 Richard HI, ed. by John Dover Wilson.
(The New Shakespeare.) C.U.P. pp. lxiii+
280. 15s.

B5641

conclusions drawn from it by W. W.
Greg and Alice Walker; and he emends
the Folio text, on which his own is
based, more freely than previous edi-
tors, notably in readings which are
common to Quarto 1 and the Folio
but which may nevertheless be cor-
rupt. He also discusses the sources
freshly and with new detail. A stage-
history of the play is supplied by C. B.
Young.

Six plays have made their appear-
ance in the revised edition of the Yale
Shakespeare. 10 In this edition glosses
are supplied in footnotes, and longer
annotations at the end of the volumes;
problems relating to the transmission
of the texts, the date of composition
and the treatment of sources are dis-
cussed in appendixes. Of this useful
series, the Romeo and Juliet is per-
haps the most interesting. As might
have been expected from the quality
of his recent articles, Hosley's hand-
ling of the complicated textual prob-
lems is very competent. He follows
Quarto 2 more closely and systemati-
cally than previous editors, at times,
indeed, to the point of pedantry in re-
taining obsolete forms in his modern-
ized version; and he has made judicious
use of the other early texts, among
other things taking from Quarto 1
stage-directions which may be based
on a performance of the play, Waith's
Macbeth gives an admirably conserva-
tive text and informative, up-to-date
annotations and appendixes. The other
volumes are likewise scholarly, and
have their several special virtues; but

10 The Yale Shakespeare (Revised Edi-
tion). As You Like It, ed. by S. C. Burchell.
pp. viii+121. Macbeth, ed. by Eugene M.
Waith. pp.viii+138. Measure for Measure,
ed. by Davis Harding, pp.viii+131, Romeo
and Juliet, ed. by Richard Hosley. pp. viii+
174. The Taming of the Shrew, ed. by
Thomas G. Bergin. pp. viii+125. Twelfth
Night, ed. by William P. Holden. pp. viii+
144. Yale U.P. O.U.P. Each vol. $1.50.
12.y.

82

SHAKESPEARE

it is perhaps a slight defect in the
series as a whole that the annotations
have to be kept so short.

To his Penguin Shakespeare, the
editorial methods of which are now
familiar, G. B. Harrison has added
Measure for Measure^ and The Mer-
chant of Venice, 11 first published in
1937, appears in a revised edition.

The Folio Society's handsome series
is enriched by the addition of Ham-
let, 12 in the text of M. R. Ridley's New
Temple Shakespeare. The volume con-
tains designs for film decor by Roger
Furse and a short Introduction by
Richard Burton.

The first five volumes to appear in
Tyrone Guthrie's New Stratford
Shakespeare 13 are Julius Caesar, Mac-
beth, The Merchant of Venice, Twelfth
Night, and A Midsummer Night's
Dream. In an Introduction common
to all the volumes Guthrie emphasizes
that the plays are 'the raw material for
theatrical performances', and describes
in outline the conditions in which they
were first performed; and for each
play he provides a short Commentary
in which he discusses its theme and
offers practical advice on production.

The Bibliography in the 1955 Spring
number of Sh Q lists more than thirty
translations from Shakespeare into
foreign languages; eight languages are
represented, including Macedonian
and Serbo-Croat. One work calls for

11 The Penguin Shakespeare, ed. by G. B.
Harrison. Measure for Measure, pp. 124.
The Merchant of Venice. Revised Edition,
pp. 121. Penguin Books. Each vol. 2s.

12 The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Den-
mark, by William Shakespeare, with an In-
troduction by Richard Burton and Designs
for Film Decor by Roger Furse. The Folio
Society, pp. 134. 185.

13 The New Stratford Shakespeare, with
Introduction and Commentary by Tyrone
Guthrie. Based upon the edited text of G. B.
Harrison. Julius Caesar, pp. 152. Macbeth.
pp. 147. The Merchant of Venice, pp. 139.
Twelfth Night, pp. 131. A Midsummer
Night's Dream, pp. 122. Harrap. Each vol.
3s. 6d.

special notice, Alberto Rossi's beauti-
fully printed Italian translation of the
Sonnets, 14 presented parallel with the
originals. Rossi's Introduction con-
tains some fresh criticism and a weigh-
ing up of the various controversies
that have grown up round the Sonnets.
This is perhaps an appropriate place
to mention A Shakespeare Antho-
logy^ 5 a small volume of selections
from the plays and poems, edited with
a biographical Foreword by G. F.
Maine.

2. Textual and Bibliographical Studies

For the benefit of what he calls lay
readers', J. Dover Wilson offers, in
The New Way -with Shakespeare's
Texts (Sh S), a simple introduction to
the science of bibliography, and a
resume of the pioneer work in Shake-
spearian textual studies done by
such scholars as Pollard, Greg, and
McKerrow.

Alice Walker's paper, Compositor
Determination and other Problems in
Shakespearian Texts (SB), is more
fully noticed in Chapter XV. Shake-
spearian scholars will find it of great
interest, among other things for what
it adds to the now rapidly accumulat-
ing knowledge of the habits of the
compositors who set up the texts of
Shakespeare's plays, and for its out-
line of the problems involved in the
preparation of an old-spelling Shake-
speare.

In Sh Q Charlton Hinman brings
forward convincing evidence of the
unreliability of the 'Halliwell-Phillips
Facsimile' of the First Folio; and in
SNL he briefly describes the 'collating-
machine' he has devised for the colla-

14 William Shakespeare: Sonetti. Intro-
duzione, Traduzione e Note di Alberto
Rossi. Torino: Einaudi, 1952. pp. 373.
L2,000.

15 A Shakespeare Anthology, with a Fore-
word by G. F. Maine. Collins, pp. 160.
3s, 6d.

SHAKESPEARE

83

tion of the seventy-nine Folger copies
of the First Folio, and outlines the
purposes of this collation.

Two articles, by James G. McMana-
way, on the printing of the later Folios
appear in The Library. In the first
McManaway lays out the evidence
which suggests that the colophon of
the Second Folio was provided only
after a few copies of the relevant
forme had been printed. In the second
he draws attention to a copy of the
Third Folio which throws light on the
allocation of the printing among the
three printers concerned. It appears
that in the broken-up example of the
Second Folio used as copy the first
three pages of 1 Henry IV were sent
to the wrong printer.

Four articles in SB are largely de-
voted to the textual study of Hamlet.
John Russell Brown's very careful
spelling-analysis, supported by evi-
dence from other works printed by
James Roberts, leads him to the belief
that the 1604/5 Quarto of Hamlet was
set up by the two compositors who
shared the work for The Merchant of
Venice, which came from Roberts's
printing-house in 1600. Brown's divi-
sion of the Hamlet Quarto according
to the spelling-habits of the composi-
tors is confirmed, in the second article,
by Fredson Bowers's analysis of the
running titles. Alice Walker, drawing
her illustrations chiefly from Hamlet,
makes a plea for eclecticism in the
editing of plays for which there are
collateral substantive texts. This eclec-
ticism must be 'controlled by the great
advances due to twentieth-century
research into the big problem of
transmission which defeated the Old
Cambridge editors'. Harold Jenkins's
subject is The Relation between the
Second Quarto and the Folio Text of
'Hamlet'. In Textual Problems of the
First Folio (noticed in YW xxxiv),
Alice Walker argued that the Folio
text of Hamlet was set up from a copy

of Quarto 2 corrected by collation
with a manuscript. Jenkins's re-
examination of Miss Walker's evi-
dence shows that her theory must be
rejected. The probability is that 'when
the printer's copy for the Folio was
being got together, Heminge and Con-
dell were not satisfied with the Hamlet
quarto and, notwithstanding laggard's
supposed preference for printed copy,
supplied a manuscript version*. He
suggests tentatively that the scribe who
made the transcript, or someone in the
printing-house, made reference to the
Quarto.

EdwinElliottWiUoughby's^l Deadly
Edition of Shakespeare (Sh g) is an
interesting account of the career of
Dr. William Dodd, who was hanged
in 1777 for forging the Earl of Ches-
terfield's signature on a bond with
which he raised money in order to
publish his edition of Shakespeare.
The edition was in fact not published.
WiHoughby discusses Dodd's editorial
methods, and his article is illustrated
with facsimiles of pages of Hanmer's
Shakespeare annotated by Dodd. Also
in Sh Q 9 Clifford Leech and Richard
Hosley cross swords on some textual
obscurities in Romeo and Juliet which
were discussed by Hosley in a 1954
Sh Q article (noticed in YW xxxiv).

In 'The Contention' and Shake-
speare's '2 Henry VF: A Comparative
Study 16 Charles Tyler Prouty chal-
lenges the 'orthodox' view that The
First Part of the Contention is a 'bad
Quarto' of 2 Henry VI, largely a
memorial reconstruction put together
either by pirates or by players requir-
ing an acting version in the absence
of the script. From his own study of
the considerable verbal variations
between the two texts, and of their
style, characterization, and structure,

16 'The Contention' and Shakespeare's
*2 Henry VI': A Comparative Study, by
Charles Tyler Prouty. Yale U.P. O.U.P.
pp. ix+157. $4. 32s.

84

SHAKESPEARE

Prouty is led to the conviction that
the Folio text, 2 Henry VI, is Shake-
speare's revision of The Contention,
an early play from another hand.

In Shakespeare without Tears (Neo-
phil) J. Swart exposes some of the
fallacies upon which Feuillerat's
Composition of Shakespeare's Plays
(noticed in YW xxxiv) is based, espe-
cially his verse-tests of authenticity.

Sydney Racepleads,in]Vg,f or an ex-
pert re-examination of the manuscript
of Manningham's Diary, in which he
suspects the presence of some forgery.
He doubts, among other things, the
authenticity of the famous entry about
Twelfth Night.

The Sh S series of articles on libra-
ries of special interest to students of
Shakespeare is continued by F. J.
Patrick, who outlines the history,
and describes the resources, of the
Birmingham Shakespeare Memorial
Library.

3. Biographical Studies

Shakespeare's lost years' continue to
exercise the ingenuity of eager sear-
chers. Some years ago Alan Keen an-
nounced his discovery of a copy of
Halle's Chronicle (4th issue, 1550)
containing some 3,000 words of mar-
ginal annotations in a Tudor hand. In
The Annotator 11 Keen, in collabora-
tion with Roger Lubbock, sets out the
results of some years of probing into
the history of this volume. For the
most part the annotations seem to be
designed to extract 'the pith and pat-
tern of Halle's history' for the very
period that is covered by Shakespeare's
history plays, and some parallels of
thought and phrasing between them

17 The Annotator: The Pursuit of an
Elizabethan Reader of Halle's Chronicle,
Involving some Surmises about the Early
Life of William Shakespeare, by Alan Keen
and Roger Lubbock. Putnam, pp. xv+216.
(With 5 genealogical charts.) 21s.

and the plays have led Keen and
Lubbock to the belief that they are
in Shakespeare's hand though the
palaeographical evidence is inconclu-
sive. From the signature which ap-
pears twice in its margins, the copy of
Halle seems at some time to have be-
longed to Sir Richard Newport of
Ercall, in Shropshire, who died in
1 570, and who was connected by mar-
riage with the Lancashire families of
Houghton and Hesketh. Alexander
Houghton's will, of 1581, commended
to Sir Thomas Hesketh a player in his
service named William Shakeshafte.
Keen follows many clues which seem
to associate Shakespeare more defi-
nitely with these northern families,
and builds up for him a hypothetical
early career as a provincial player
before he came to London.

The 'lost years' are also the subject
of The Young Shakespeare by E. B.
Everitt. Everitt contends that Shake-
speare was one of the noverints, or
law-clerks, who drew upon themselves
the jealous irritability of Nashe and
others of the University Wits. From his
analyses of the handwriting of several
manuscripts which have received little
attention from Shakespearian scholars,
and the tests that he applies to vocabu-
lary, imagery, and trains of thought,
he claims for Shakespeare the author-
ship of Edmund Ironside, King Leir,
The Troublesome Raigne of lohn
King of England, Edward ///, and
also of Tarletoris News from Purga-
tory and a letter to Edward Alleyn
preserved at Dulwich College; per-
haps, too, of The Famous Victories
of King Henry the Fifth. All these
works he places between 1587 and
1592. It is unlikely that his theories
will carry any weight unless he can

18 The Young Shakespeare: Studies in
Documentary Evidence, by E. B. Everitt.
(Anglistica, vol. ii.) Copenhagen: Rosen-
kilde og Bagger, pp. 188. Dan. Kr. 27.50.
355.

SHAKESPEARE

85

support them with some watertight
evidence.

In his British Academy Shakespeare
Lecture, Shakespeare's Earliest Years
in the Theatre (Proc Brit Acad, 1953),
J. Isaacs makes an interesting contri-
bution 'towards the writing of a miss-
ing chapter in Shakespeare's real and
inner biography'. He shows how con-
stantly, throughout his career as a
dramatist, Shakespeare echoes and re-
shapes and coalesces passages from
plays 'which impressed him either for
their effectiveness in the theatre or for
some poetical quality which set off a
machine in his mind'. This procedure
he applies both to other men's plays
and his own, and by studying it we
may to some extent see 'the mechan-
ism of his mind and the contents of his
memory during his earliest years in
the theatre'.

In Sh S Mario Praz joins issue with
those who contend that Shakespeare
knew Italy at first hand. Though he
believes that Shakespeare could read
Italian, he regards it as probable that
he got his local details from Italians
living or staying in London, perhaps
from, among others, John Florio.

Arthur Field's 'discoveries' 19 will of
course not be taken seriously. From
Richard Fenton's Tour in Quest of
Genealogy, which came out anony-
mously in 1811, Field extracts and
laboriously annotates some poems,
letters, and fragments of a journal
which Fenton claims to have taken
from an old manuscript volume picked
up in Wales, and which he 'believes' to
be authentic writings of Shakespeare
previously 'copied from an old manu-
script in the hand-writing of Mrs.
Shakspere'. These writings ring tho-
roughly false; it seems fairly likely
that they are the work of Fenton him-
self.

19 Recent Discoveries Relating to the Life
and Works of William Shakspere, by Arthur
Field. Mitre Press, pp. 84. Is. 6d.

In NQ Roland Mushat Frye draws
attention to a parallel to Shakespeare's
bequest of his 'second best bed' to his
widow in Sir Walter Raleigh's 'In-
structions to his Son and to Posterity'.

4. General Works

John Masefield's William Shake-
speare 20 is more than a revision of the
book he wrote some forty years ago.
The framework is the same, but almost
every section has been to some degree
rewritten, and at times the whole ap-
proach to a play has been radically
changed. For instance, the emphasis on
the treachery in King John has given
place to a more balanced account of
the spirit and the characters of the
play; and there is a general toning
down of the extreme views that marked
so much of the earlier work. However,
Masefield shows a very scanty know-
ledge of the Shakespearian scholarship
of the past forty years. The book may,
with reservations, be recommended for
the interest of Masefield's opinions;
where facts are in question it is un-
reliable.

Talking of Shakespeare, 21 edited by
John Garrett, brings together a dozen
of the lectures delivered in recent years
at the Shakespeare course for teachers
at Stratford. Garrett opens the volume
with some sensible remarks on the
teaching of Shakespeare. Michael Red-
grave gives his views on the acting of
Shakespeare, and is reassuring about
the modern co-operation between ac-
tors and scholars. Paul Dehn makes
lively appraisals of some film versions
of the plays. Norman Marshall de-
scribes how the reactions of foreign
audiences taught him and his com-
pany to find new meanings in the plays

20 William Shakespeare, by John Mase-
field. Heinemann. pp. vii+184. 8s. 6d.

21 Talking of Shakespeare, ed. by John
Garrett. Hodder & Stoughton, in assoc.
with Max Reinhardt. pp. 264. 20 s*

86

SHAKESPEARE

they performed abroad. Walter Oake-
shott shows the importance of Shake-
speare's reading of Plutarch in the
development of his sense of tragedy;
Neville Coghill analyses the 'dramatic
strategy' of Hamlet] and A. P. Ros-
siter's remarks on the Histories em-
phasize some of their comic effects.
L. A. G. Strong speaks sensibly about
Shakespeare and the psychologists.
Patric Dickinson's subject is Shake-
speare as a poet; A. L. Rowse presents
an historian's view of Elizabethan
drama and society; Glynne Wickham
discusses Shakespeare's 'Small Latine
and Less Greeke'; and this admirably
unpedantic collection is rounded off
with some comments of J. Dover Wil-
son on the editing of Shakespeare, with
special reference to the problems of
Richard HI.

Lorentz Eckhoff's Shakespeare,
Spokesman of the Third Estate, 22 first
published in Norwegian in 1938, now
appears in an English translation by
R. I. Christophersen. Eckhoff's thesis,
not at all convincingly supported, is
that Shakespeare reveals himself in his
plays as a profoundly pessimistic man,
dissatisfied with the government of the
world and of the state, sceptical about
love, and distrustful of ambition.
Though he can find little to admire in
the human condition, he does show
approval of level-headedness, of con-
sistency, moderation, impassivity, and
balance'. These attitudes, says Eckhoff,
demonstrate that he is essentially un-
aristocratic in his philosophy of life,
essentially a man of the people.

Six lectures delivered at the Yale
Shakespeare Festival of 1954 are pub-
lished, with an introductory account of
the Festival by Charles Tyler Prouty,
under the title, Shakespeare: Of an

22 Shakespeare, Spokesman of the Third
Estate, by Lorentz Eckhoff. (Oslo Studies
in English, No. 3.) Oslo: Akademisk For-
lag. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. xiv-f-201,
Kr. 15. 15s.

Age and for All Time. 23 These lectures
are noticed individually in appropriate
sections of this chapter.

Edwin R. Hunter's Shakspere and
Common Sense 24 is made up of a series
of essays bound together by a twofold
thesis. In the first place, says Hunter,
Shakespeare's attitude towards senti-
mentality, affectation, and pretentious-
ness of any kind is essentially that of
a man of strong common sense; in As
You Like It, for instance, the poten-
tial sentimentality of several situations
is nullified by the realism of Jaques
and Touchstone and the clearsighted-
ness of 'Ganymede'. Secondly, mental
or moral aberration in his characters
is treated, not in any technical or ab-
struse fashion, but by the way of com-
mon sense; thus the madness of Lear
is cured, not by the methods of 'the
contemporary manuals of psycho-
therapy', but by 'the time-honored
means of clean garments, sleep, soft
music, and to greet him upon waking
the familiar face and voice of a
loved one'. In developing his picture
of the 'commonsensical' Shakespeare,
Hunter writes well about many rarely
considered aspects of the plays: the
ludicrous side of Richard IFs person-
ality, the dramatic function of Fal-
staff's page, and Shakespeare's hand-
ling of the love-poems of his wooers.

In his Courtship in Shakespeare 25
William G. Meader makes a detailed
analysis of the manner in which
Shakespeare and some of his contem-
poraries present the courtship of their
lovers. His object is to ascertain how

23 Shakespeare: Of an Age and for All
Time (The Yale Shakespeare Festival Lec-
tures), ed. by Charles Tyler Prouty. Ham-
den, Conn. : Shoe String Press, pp. iii+ 147.
$2.50.

24 Shakspere and Common Sense, by
Edwin R. Hunter. Boston: Christopher.
pp.312. $4.

25 Courtship in Shakespeare: Its Relation
to the Tradition of Courtly Love, by Wil-
liam G. Meader. Columbia U.P. O.U.P.
pp.ix+266. 32s.

SHAKESPEARE

87

far the Elizabethan playwrights ob-
serve the medieval conventions of
courtly love. In the main, he shows,
the outward pattern of Shakespeare's
courtships resembles that which is
described by Andreas Capellanus and
followed by such writers as Chretien de
Troyes, but the underlying morality
is very different. Shakespeare rejects
such elements in the courtly love con-
vention as diverge from the middle-
class morality of the Elizabethan age.
His typical lovers are faithful, and
their aim is an honourable and happy
marriage; he tends to withdraw his
sympathy from those whose moral
code is not reasonably strict. His
morality, where love is concerned, is
a compromise between the more licen-
tious aspects of courtly love and 'the
rabid asceticism of the unworldly'.

The best parts of Derek Traversi's
Shakespeare: The Last Phase 2 * are
those in which the imagery of Shake-
speare's last four plays if indeed
Pericles is as late as this is seen as a
contribution to the poetic beauty of
these plays. Traversi is not often con-
tent, however, to discuss the poetry as
simply as this; for him its interest lies
chiefly in what he considers to be its
symbolical value. The book as a whole
is marred by his strained symbolical
interpretations.

Madeleine Doran's Endeavors of
Art, 27 which is more fully noticed in
Chapter VIII (n. 1) requires mention
here as a study of the problems of form
that confronted Shakespeare and his
fellow playwrights, and of 'the context
of artistic ideas, attitudes, tastes and
interests in which they worked'. Of
particular relevance are the sections
in which Miss Doran differentiates the
Shakespearian and Jonsonian types of

26 Shakespeare: The Last Phase, by Derek
Traversi. Hollis & Carter, pp. vii+272. 21s.

27 Endeavors of Art: A Study of Form
in Elizabethan Drama, by Madeleine Doran.
Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, pp.
xv+482. $6.

comedy. An appendix on the sources
of Measure for Measure seeks to show
that Shakespeare was indebted to Cin-
thio's Epitia as well as to Whetstone's
versions of the story.

In his Inaugural Lecture 28 as Winter-
stoke Professor in the University of
Bristol, L. C. Knights shows that,
though 'there is no Shakespearean
political doctrine, there is a recog-
nizably Shakespearean manner in the
dramatic presentation of political
situations and problems'. As Knights
illustrates, Shakespeare thinks always
in terms of human experience. His
practice is grounded in a long-stand-
ing English tradition, which is exem-
plified also in Piers Plowman and the
social morality plays of the sixteenth
century.

In an article in MLR E. A. J. Honig-
mann sets out to counter the growing
tendency to postulate lost source-plays
for Shakespeare 'on the ground of
stylistic substrata'. Though Shake-
speare's use of extant source-plays
cannot be denied, Honigmann feels
that 'the widespread belief in his lost
source-plays has little basis when
studied in the light of the most impor-
tant examples*.

A short article by W. M. Merchant
(Sh 7) throws light on the Elizabethan
conception of the Divine Right of
Kings. The distinction between the
fallible person who wears the crown
and the status of kingship 'bears within
itself the possibility of irony and of
deep tragedy'; and Merchant shows
how clearly writers, especially Shake-
speare, realized these dramatic poten-
tialities,

In Much Ado About 'Nothing'
(Sh Q) Paul A. Jorgensen examines
the implications of the word nothing
as it is used by various Shakespearian
characters. He shows that Shakespeare,

28 Poetry, Politics and the English Tradi-
tion, by L. C. Knights. Chatto & Windus,
pp. 32. 2,1. 64,

SHAKESPEARE

and other writers, 'ingeniously shaped
Nothing into many significances',
often punning elaborately upon it,
often giving it philosophical or theo-
logical associations. Turning to Much
Ado, he offers some support for Grant
White's belief 'that the original audi-
ence both pronounced and interpreted
the title as "Much Ado about Noting";
for noting, observing and eavesdrop-
ping, is found in almost every scene
and is indispensable to all the plots'.

Kurt Schluter (Sh J) analyses Shake-
speare's technique in unfolding events
that preceded the action of his plays.
He draws a contrast between the com-
paratively simple, 'epic' methods of
the early plays, The Comedy of Errors,
for example, and the highly developed,
essentially dramatic methods of late
plays like The Tempest.

G. R. Waggoner (PQ) discusses 'the
concept of foreign war as a useful
device for maintaining order within a
kingdom' in relation to Shakespeare's
History plays, especially Richard //,
Henry IV, and Henry V. In a talk
printed in Ess. by Divers Hands (see
Chapter I, n. 38), Major the Earl
Wavell speaks of Shakespeare's know-
ledge of war, and of the manner in
which he represents the attitude to-
wards the military life both of the
officer and of the common soldier.

I. J. Semper (SNL) reviews the argu-
ments that have been adduced to show
that Shakespeare was a 'crypto-Catho-
lic', and agrees with Arthur Innes that
'the case is not more than presentable'.

In Shakespeare and Muscovy (Sla-
vonic and E European Rev) J. W.
Draper considers the dozen or so
references to Russia or Russian man-
ners in the plays, and suggests that
Shakespeare probably derived most of
his knowledge from voyagers or from
his observation of Russians who came
to England, though some touches may
derive from written records. K. B.
Danks draws attention (NQ) to several

passages where the imagery shows
Shakespeare's knowledge of the form
of torture known as peine forte et
dure, that is, pressing to death.

The annual and quarterly publica-
tions remain to be noticed. In Shake-
speare Survey 29 the central theme is
Shakespeare's style, but a few articles
on other topics are included. The vol-
ume contains the customary notes on
Shakespearian study and production
overseas, and a survey of the 1953 con-
tributions to Shakespearian scholar-
ship in which critical studies are re-
viewed by Clifford Leech, works on
Shakespeare's life, times, and stage by
Harold Jenkins, and textual studies by
James G. McManaway.

The emphasis in this year's issue of
Shakespeare Jahrbuch is likewise on
style and language. In addition to
about a dozen articles, the volume as
usual offers book reviews and digests
of articles in journals, a survey of
German Shakespearian productions,
and a bibliography (1949-50). It also
gives an account, from Wolfgang
Stroedel's pen, of the five-day festival
held at Bochum to celebrate the nine-
tieth birthday of the Shakespeare-
Gesellschaft, and publishes the Arch-
bishop of Cologne's opening address
and Rudolf Alexander Schroder's fes-
tival oration on Troilus and Cressida,
which is noticed later in this chapter.
(Stroedel describes the Bochum festi-
val for English readers in Sh Q.)

Shakespeare Quarterly 31 preserves all
its regular features. Of particular value

29 Shakespeare Survey: An Annual Sur-
vey of Shakespearian Study and Production.
No. 7, ed. by Allardyce Nicoll. C.U.P.
pp. viii+168. Us.

30 Shakespeare Jahrbuch, herausgegeben
im Auftrage der Deutschen Shakespeare-
Gesellschaft von Hermann Heuer, unter Mit-
wirkung von Wolfgang Clemen und Rudolf
Stamm. Band 90. Heidelberg: Quelle &
Meyer, pp. 439. DM. 31. 56s.

31 Shakespeare Quarterly, published by
the Shakespeare Assn. of America, New
York.

SHAKESPEARE

89

are the annotated bibliography for
1953 in the Spring issue, and the sur-
vey of Shakespearian scholarship in
1953 by Hereward T. Price.

The Shakespeare Newsletter, 32 now
in its fourth year, appears six times a
year. It provides digests of articles and
unpublished lectures, reviews of books
and productions, and a few short ori-
ginal articles. Useful too are the ab-
stracts of completed theses and lists of
theses in progress which may encour-
age the exchange of information be-
tween scholars working in similar fields.

Renaissance Papers (Univ. of S.
Carolina Press), a selection of the
papers read at the Renaissance Meet-
ing held at Duke University in April,
was not available when this chapter
was written. It contains the following
papers that relate to Shakespeare: Law
in Shakespeare, by Louis Marder;
William Charles Mac ready as a Shake-
spearean Critic, by Carol Jones Car-
lisle; 'Richard IT and the Image of the
Betrayed Christ, by I. B. Cauthen, Jr.;
and Verdi's 'Macbeth', by Edward F.
Nolan.

5. Language, Style, and Versification

The only full-scale study of Shake-
speare as a poet is F. E. Halliday's
The Poetry of Shakespeare's Plays. 33
Shakespeare, Halliday reminds us, is
'of all writers in the world the supreme
creator of character', and his charac-
ters 'are what they are because of what
they say, or rather because of how they
say it, because of the poetry'. It fol-
lows, then, that the aesthetic criticism
of Shakespeare's plays must begin
with an appreciation of the poetry.

32 The Shakespeare Newsletter, ed. by
Louis Marder, Pembroke State College,
Pembroke, N. Carolina. (London: Wm.
Dawson & Sons, Canon House, Macklin
St., W.C 2.)

33 The Poetry of Shakespeare's Plays, by
F. E. Halliday. London: Duckworth.
Cambridge, Mass.: Bentley. pp. 196. 15s*
$3.50.

Retaining the 'accepted' chronology,
with its division of Shakespeare's dra-
matic career into five main 'periods',
and indeed to some extent confirming
this chronology by the evidence of
changing and developing techniques,
Halliday sets out to show that there is
a peculiarly 'Shakespearian core* dis-
cernible throughout the canon. At the
same time, almost every play demon-
strates Shakespeare's never-failing in-
terest in the exploration of new tech-
niques and new forms of expression.
Play by play, Halliday analyses the
language, the versification, and the
imagery, and brings out their relation
to the dramatic content. He writes
well both of Shakespeare's growing
mastery of dramatic poetry seen
against the background of whole
plays, and of innumerable individual
passages.

In The Poet and the Player (Sh S)
George Rylands develops further the
thesis of his British Academy Shake-
speare Lecture for 1951 (noticed in
YW xxxiv), that the actors of today
must 'train their ears and tongues and
train our ears to the whole great art
of Shakespeare's music making'.

M. C. Bradbrook points out (Sh S)
that comparatively little has been
written on the central problems of
Shakespeare's style. Having surveyed,
under appropriate headings, works of
the last fifty years that are relevant to
this subject, Miss Bradbrook suggests
that 'the time is ripe for a volume
which should stand with Chambers on
the stage, with Pollard and McKerrow
and Greg on the texts'.

In a stimulating article, also in Sh S,
Gladys D. Willcock passes in review
the doctrines of the leading Eliza-
bethan grammarians and orthoepists,
and shows that, far from finding his
opportunity 'in the rankness and wild-
ness of the language*, as George Gor-
don maintained, Shakespeare relin-
quished his adherence to Elizabethan

90

SHAKESPEARE

linguistic theory, as well as his Eliza-
bethan inventiveness, 'more reluc-
tantly than other poets and dramatists
born in or near his decade, such as
Chapman'. He began to write 'in a
literary world revelling in schemes and
tropes', and wrote always 'in co-opera-
tion with a linguistically intent and
active national mind'. Miss Willcock's
British Academy Lecture, 34 in which
she analyses the language and poetry
of Shakespeare's early plays, is to
some extent an illustration of what
she says here. In these plays Shake-
speare is essentially an Elizabethan
poet, and his work 'shares . . . very
fully in the tastes and habits, the tricks
of style, of the non-dramatic poetry
and prose of the latter '80's and early
'90's the age of open and unashamed
artifice'. Yet he had by nature 'a deep
sense of the heart or base of speech, of
mother- tongue'; and though his lan-
guage is 'literary', it remains within
the comprehension of his audience,
and 'does not involve any necessary
incompatibility with reception in the
theatre'.

Miss Willcock's approach to Shake-
speare's style is further developed in
two articles in Sh /, Kenneth Muir's
Shakespeare and Rhetoric and R. A.
Foakes's Contrasts and Connections.
Like Miss Willcock, Muir points out
that Shakespeare's verse 'deliberately
and ostentatiously employed rhetori-
cal artifice, and it gave pleasure in
direct proportion to its rhetorical skill'.
All the great plays contain elaborate
speeches which we can appreciate fully
only if we are conscious of their rhe-
torical structure. Muir goes on to dis-
cuss in some detail Shakespeare's use
of puns. Foakes concerns himself espe-
cially with deliberate changes in style
within individual plays. He suggests,

34 Language and Poetry in Shakespeare's
Early Plays, by Gladys D. Willcock. (British
Academy Shakespeare Lecture, 1954.)
O.U.P. pp. 15, 3s. 6d.

with illustration, that these changes,
from blank verse to rhyme or to prose,
for example, are designed to guide our
response to what is being said. In the
comedies their chief function is to pro-
vide contrasts; in the tragedies they
serve to lead the auditor from the arti-
ficial to the real. In the tragedies, how-
ever, the emphasis is on continuity;
'often through iteration of stylistic de-
vices, and imagery, a sense of unity of
style is maintained', as Foakes demon-
strates by an examination of Mac-
beth.

Also in Sh /, Thomas Finkenstaedt
makes a plea for a full-scale study of
Shakespeare's versification, and indi-
cates, with illustration, the lines on
which it should be based. In his Yale
Festival lecture (see n. 23) Helge
Kokeritz makes a similar plea on be-
half of Shakespeare's language. He
reviews what has so far been done
in this neglected field of study.

In Sh S A. C. Partridge examines the
orthography of four Quartos in which
he believes Shakespeare's habits of
spelling, punctuation, elision, contrac-
tion, and the like to have been pre-
served with some degree of fidelity:
the first Quartos of Venus and Adonis
and Richard II, and the second of
Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet. He
comes to the conclusion that Shake-
speare's spelling was somewhat old-
fashioned, and that he had little time
to keep abreast with new developments
in orthography until his contact with
Jonson began near the turn of the cen-
tury; his punctuation was designed
largely to secure smoothness and dra-
matic significance.

In Sh J Una Ellis-Fermor writes on
Some Functions of Verbal Music in
Drama. The most general function is
'that of transmitting to our imagina-
tions . , . something of the mood or
quality of the play'. Miss Ellis-Fermor
offers an interpretation of All's Well
which she has derived from a willing

SHAKESPEARE

91

resignation of her imagination to the
verbal music of the play. Shakespeare,
she says, 'appears to attempt the reve-
lation of a world like that of Cymbe-
line and The Winter's Tale where the
chief characters . . . possess a high
nobility, because high bearing in them
is illuminated with courtesy and with
urbane forbearance, and because
chivalry has disciplined the boisterous
force of the passions, turning them
into channels graved by purpose and
dedicating them to its intent'. She goes
on to show how the music of Corio-
lanus's speeches is adapted to his vary-
ing moods.

In Das Schauspielerische in der
Diktion Shakespeares 35 Richard Flat-
ter discusses some of the principles by
which the translator of Shakespeare
should be governed. Shakespeare is a
master of subtle erf ects both of rhythm
and of sound, and the translator who
fails to reproduce these effects misses
much of what is most essentially dra-
matic in his writing. Flatter illustrates
the failings in this respect of the
famous versions of Schlegel, and
shows how in his own translations he
has consistently sought a diction which
will preserve Shakespeare's sound-
effects.

Rudolf Stamm's pamphlet, Shake-
speare's Word-Scenery?* begins by
emphasizing the value of the work
done by stage-historians towards the
interpretation of Shakespeare's plays.
Stamm goes on to demonstrate how
the playwright supplements the com-
paratively meagre resources of his
stage by the use of 'word-scenery'; in
the first and third scenes of Macbeth,

35 Das Schauspielerische in der Diktion
Shakespeares, von Richard Flatter. (Shake-
speare-Schriften, 1. Heft,) Wien: Walter
Krieg. pp. 34.

36 Shakespeare's Word -Scenery, with
Some Remarks on Stage-History and the
Interpretation of His Plays, by Rudolf
Stamm. Zurich: Polygraphischer Verlag.
pp. 34. Sw. Fr, 3.75.

for example, the 'visual impressions'
of the audience are raised to the pro-
per imaginative pitch, and their 'sense
of place and time' is attuned to the
terrible moral event that is taking
place. Stamm illustrates various ways
in which Shakespeare indicates the
scene of his action.

It might have been expected that the
loss of inflexional endings would im-
poverish the English language as a
vehicle for fine writing or subtleties of
expression. Bogislav von Lindheim
(Sh J) illustrates, largely from Shake-
speare, one means by which Eliza-
bethan writers compensated this loss,
that is, by the transference of the syn-
tactical functions of words ('syntak-
tische Funktionsverschiebung'). Thus
nouns are frequently made to do ser-
vice as verbs, and other parts of speech,
too, change their functions; and by the
addition of prefixes words are given
new meanings and new relation-
ships.

A complementary study by Hanne-
lore Stahl, also in Sh J, deals in some
detail with Shakespeare's enrichment
of the language by means of suffixes.

Alfred Schopf s theme (Sh J) is
Shakespeare's use of recurrent words.
Sometimes dominant traits of charac-
ter are established by the constant
association of particular epithets with
particular persons; or it may be par-
ticular types of metaphor, like the
beast-metaphors attached to Richard
III. More complex is the manner in
which important themes are developed
by the repetition of words: 'honour'
in / Henry IV, 'commodity' in King
John, love' and 'honour' in Julius
Caesar.

J. C. Maxwell discusses (MLR)
several Shakespearian passages in
which at once appears to bear a sense
not attributed to it in Shakespearian
dictionaries and glossaries: that is, 'at
one stroke, heat, etc.; with one sweep;
once for all'.

92

SHAKESPEARE

6. Works on Individual Plays and
Poems

In this section the plays are treated
in the order of the First Folio.

After drawing attention to the diver-
sity of critical opinion of The Tem-
pest, Hermann Heuer illustrates (Sh J)
some of the ways in which the lan-
guage of the play reflects different
aspects and levels of the real and the
visionary.

To dismiss The Two Gentlemen of
Verona as only another tale of friend-
ship and love is to misread if, says
Thomas A. Perry (Sh g). 'It is pri-
marily the timely story of the Italian-
ated youth in whom false friendship
and false love accompany the attempts
of the youth to acquire sophistication.'
Perry examines the basic source of
the play the tale of Felis and Felis-
mena in Montemayor's Diana and
the Elizabethan attitude towards the
Italianate Englishman in order to
demonstrate that Proteus is Shake-
speare's portrait of a 'wry-transformed
traveller'.

Roy F. Montgomery suggests (Sh Q)
that in Ford's comparison of his love
to 'a fair house built on another man's
ground' (Merry Wives, n. ii. 224), there
is an allusion to the Theatre, which
was built on ground of which Bur-
bage's lease expired in April 1 597.

In an article in Sh Q John L. Har-
rison considers Shakespeare's use of
the conventional association of heart
and tongue in Measure for Measure,
where, he contends, it 'reflects the jus-
tice-mercy, appearance-reality theme
of the play'. He analyses several epi-
sodes in which the utterances of the
tongue are at variance with the motives
of the heart, and concludes that 'the
measure for measure principle . . . is
realized in the play at more than one
level, and predominantly in terms of
the degree of unity or disunity of heart
and tongue'.

Francis Fergusson's essay on The
Comedy of Errors and Much Ado
(SewaneeRev) is designed to bring out
the contrast between the simple fun
of the earlier play and the 'enigmatic
humor' of Shakespeare's maturity.

Moth's Tenvoy' in Love's Labour's
Lost (in. i. 103-4) has been fairly gene-
rally accepted as a meaningless jingle.
Stanley B. Greenfield interprets it
(RES) as a foreshadowing of the scene
(iv. iii) in which the King and his
courtiers reveal that they have for-
sworn themselves by falling in love.
The fox, the ape, and the humble-bee,
he says, may be taken to represent the
King, Longaville, and Dumain, while
the goose is Berowne. Russell A.
Fraser contends (Sh Q) that Moth's
reference to a dancing horse (i. ii. 51)
cannot be reliably associated with
Banks's famous horse Morocco, and
hence used as evidence in dating the
play. There appears to have been more
than one performing horse in Eliza-
bethan England, as Fraser shows by a
quotation from John Hall's Court of
Venue (1565).

A Midsummer Night's Dream is the
subject of several notes. Kenneth Muir
sets out to show (Sh Q) that Shake-
speare probably 'consulted six or seven
versions of the Pyramus story before
writing his tedious brief scene*. As
Muir's quotations show, he seems most
often to have borrowed from the some-
what bathetic version in Thomas
Mouffet's poem, The Silkewormes and
their Flies, which, though not pub-
lished until 1599, appears to have been
available in manuscript some years
earlier. However, Muir's main pur-
pose in this article is to analyse Shake-
speare's methods in the simultaneous
handling of many sources. He points
out that several different works were
consulted or recalled during the com-
position of other plays, such as Richard
II and Lear, and suggests that the time
has come for 'a full-length study of

SHAKESPEARE

93

Shakespeare's use of multiple sources'.
Quince's play provides the material
for another article by Muir, Shake-
speare as Parodist (NQ). This play,
says Muir, 'serves to satirise not only
the crude mingling of tragedy and
comedy still prevalent in the lower
levels of popular drama in 1595, but
also many of the poetic absurdities
into which the poetasters of the age
were liable to fall'.

Karl Hammerle draws a parallel
(Sh I) between Shakespeare's picture
of Titania's bower and Spenser's de-
scriptions of Phaedria's isle, the Bower
of Bliss, and the Garden of Adonis.
Terence Spencer suggests (MLR) that
Shakespeare caused Lysander to de-
scribe 'Demetrius' as a vile name (n.
ii. 106-7) because in his reading of
North he found in the lives of Antony
and of Demetrius Poliorcetes several
references to Demetrius's wantonness
and faithlessness in love.

Antonio's melancholy at the very
beginning of The Merchant of Venice,
says K. B. Danks (NQ), would be re-
cognized by Shakespeare's audience
as a forewarning of his tragic role in
a tragi-comic plot

Many critics have regarded The
Taming of the Shrew as only partly
Shakespearian; K. Wentersdorf's ana-
lysis of the imagery (Sh Q) convinces
him that it is wholly by Shakespeare.
First he finds several comparatively
simple metaphors common to what
E. K. Chambers regarded as the
'Shakespearian' and the 'non-Shake-
spearian' scenes. Turning to extended
images and 'image-clusters' of the type
that have come to be accepted as
characteristically Shakespearian, he
lists with appropriate parallels some
twenty that occur in the scenes which
Chambers assigned to a collaborator.
Next he traces a line of iterative ima-
gery running through the whole play,
an imagery based on the idea of
taming a hawk and on the associated

themes of bird hunting and snaring.
Finally he points out that there are
'several parallels of idea, vocabulary
and phrasing to Shakespeare's undis-
puted writings'. The inequality of
poetic style, he concludes, is due to
hasty writing, for 'the imagery indi-
cates that the play was the work of
but one playwright, and that this play-
wright was Shakespeare'.

Thelma Nelson Greenfield (PQ)
compares the Inductions of the anony-
mous Taming of a Shrew and Shake-
speare's Taming of the Shrew to de-
monstrate that, more than is usual
with Elizabethan inductions, Shake-
speare 'brings his Induction into an
organic relationship with the main
play. . . . The contrast between the
literal world of Sly and the world of
dramatic poetry is emphatic and mean-
ingful.' Terence Spencer (MLR) thinks
that 'old lohn Naps of Greece', who
is mentioned among Christopher Sly's
cronies, may have been a real person.
There is evidence that, of the many
Greek mercenary soldiers who were
employed in various parts of Europe
in the sixteenth century, some found
their way to England; John Naps may
have been one such veteran who had
settled down in a Warwickshire vil-
lage.

The First Night of 'Twelfth Night', 37
by Leslie Hotson, is an engrossing
book. From interesting documents
that he has tracked down, including a
memorandum of the Lord Chamber-
lain and letters of Don Virginio Or-
sino, Duke of Bracciano, who was an
honoured guest of Queen Elizabeth at
her Twelfth Night festivities in 1 600/1 ,
Hotson sets out to reconstruct what
he believes to have been the first per-
formance of Twelfth Night. He argues
with some persuasiveness that it was
specially commissioned for perform-

37 The First Night of 'Twelfth Night', by
Leslie Hotson. London : Hart-Davis. New
York: MacmiUan. pp.256. 2ls. $4.50.

94

SHAKESPEARE

ance before the Queen and the distin-
guished Don Orsino on this particular
Twelfth Night. Unfortunately one
vital link in the chain of evidence is
missing: none of the documents names,
or recognizably describes, the play that
was seen on this occasion. Nor is it en-
tirely easy to believe that the Twelfth
Night that we know was written to
order and produced within ten days,
as Hotson claims; or that Elizabeth
and the Italian Orsino would enjoy as
flattery the parts of Olivia and the
Illyrian Orsino. Hotson's well-argued
case cannot be accepted as proved. His
book remains of considerable interest,
however, and of some value for what
it adds to our understanding and en-
joyment of Twelfth Night, and to our
knowledge of the Elizabethan back-
ground. Hotson also repeats the sub-
stance of a Sewanee Review article
noticed in this chapter last year, in
which, having demonstrated that an
arena stage was sometimes used for
dramatic performances in private
halls, he argues less satisfactorily for
a similar method of presentation in
the public theatres.

In Sh Q Helen Andrews Kaufman
argues, from parallels in situation and
dialogue, that in the composition of
Twelfth Night Shakespeare was in-
debted not only to the anonymous
Gl'Ingannati and Nicolo Secchi's
Gringanni, but also to another of
Secchi's comedies, L'lnteresse. She
believes, too, that Shakespeare was
influenced by 'Secchi's portrayal of
witty, self-reliant and ardent young
girls of good family, and by his humor-
ous but sensitive treatment of roman-
tic love'. In discussing Charles Lamb's
account of the actor Bensley's inter-
pretation of Malvolio as a tragic figure,
Sylvan Barnet declares (PQ) that Lamb
is 'writing of his own Malvolio, rather
than of Bensley's'. Moreover, his pic-
ture of the tragic Malvolio 6 is strangely
inconsistent with his own theory of

comedy'. In Renaissance News Syd-
ney Beck contends that the setting of
'O mistresse mine' in Morley's Consort
Lessons of 1599 was intended to 'go
with the verses in Shakespeare's play',
and hence that there was some col-
laboration between Morley and Shake-
speare. In the following number of the
same journal John H. Long disputes
Beck's conclusions.

Three or four articles treat of the
History Plays in general terms. Irving
Ribner (PMLA) attempts a definition
of the genre. After reviewing similar
attempts by other writers, he lays em-
phasis on the didactic purposes of
Elizabethan writers who used histori-
cal material, whether in dramatic or
non-dramatic works. An historical
play, he says, was one which fulfilled
what the Elizabethans considered the
serious purposes of history; that is, it
offered attractive opportunities for
exercises in style, and it had a practi-
cal value in that it taught moral and
political lessons and celebrated the past
and present glories of the author's
native land. Moreover, there was in-
herent in history a romance which has
a wide popular appeal in every age,
and which seems especially to have
delighted the Elizabethans. Structur-
ally the Tudor history play has its
roots in primitive folk ritual and the
medieval religious drama. In another
article, Morality Roots of the Tudor
History Play, in Tulane Stud in Eng,
Ribner amplifies this last point with
an analysis of some Morality elements
in plays of this type.

In The Early Historical Plays, a lec-
ture delivered at the Yale Shakespeare
Festival (see n. 23), Arleigh D. Richard-
son, III, speaks about the background
and significance of the early Histories,
especially the Henry VI plays, and
suggests that they deserve more re-
spectful attention than they generally
receive. Writing on The Problem of
OrderinShakespeare t sHistories(Neo-

SHAKESPEARE

95

phil), Johannes Kleinstiick contends
that 'Shakespeare did not teach us the
doctrine of Order, but presented us
with the problem of order'. This he did
especially in the Histories, the world
of which 'is conspicuously lacking in
order'.

A new twist is given to the Baconian
Theory in Shakespeare with Bacon?*
by H. Grute. Grute tabulates passages
of Shakespeare which have parallels
in Bacon's writings in an attempt to
show that 'Bacon and Shakespeare
wrote the English History plays in
collaboration, as part of Bacon's idea
to propagate some periods of their
country's history through theatrical
presentation. They are a combination
of Bacon's tremendous range of know-
ledge and thought portrayed by Shake-
speare in magnificent language.'

Analysing some strains of imagery
in King John, E. C. Pettet (Ess Crif)
draws attention to 'the emphatic re-
currence of words and images con-
nected with heat and fire*. Many of
these images are linked either with
eyes or with the notion of torture or
torment by fire, suggesting that the
Hubert- Arthur scene exercised 'a com-
pulsive effect on Shakespeare's ima-
gination'. Later in the play there are
'antithetical heat and coldness images
arising from John's poisoning and
fever'.

Reviewing the evidence for various
theories on the date of composition of
the Henry IV plays, John W. Draper
(Neophil) considers in particular the
implications of 'the evidences of "Old-
castle" that linger in Part IF, and of
the line 'Not Amurath an Amurath
succeeds', and suggests 'the winter of
1595-96 for the composition of Part
II, and for Part I, a few months earlier

38 Shakespeare with Bacon: An Exami-
nation of the English History Plays com-
monly attributed to Shakespeare, by H.
Grute. Newtown : Montgomeryshire Print-
ing Co. pp. 88. 7s>6d.

in 1595, immediately after the writing
of Richard U\ C. A. Greer (NQ) offers
fresh support for A. E. Morgan's claim
that a play now lost was the common
source of Henry IV, Henry V f and
The Famous Victories of Henry the
Fifth. In a later article in NQ Greer
lists many parallels to substantiate his
belief that in the composition of Henry
IV and Henry V Shakespeare was
strongly dependent on The Famous
Victories 'for plot, order, thought, in-
cident, phraseology'.

In 'Henry IV and the Elizabethan
Two-Pan Play (RES) G. K. Hunter
illustrates some of the features of the
two-part play of Shakespeare's day.
Such unity as we find in these plays,
he says, 'depends on a parallel setting-
out of the incidents rather than on any
picking-up of all the threads of Part
One'. The connexion between the two
parts of Henry IV 'formalizes a unity
of this kind: the unity of the play is
that of a diptych, in which repetition
of shape and design focuses attention
on what is common to the two parts*.

Falstaff comes in for a good deal of
attention. In A Falstaff for the 'Bright 1
(Mod Phil) Elmer Edgar Stoll argues
against Dover Wilson's view that Fal-
staff was not intended by his creator
to be thought a coward, and that the
'brighter', 'more judicious' members of
an Elizabethan audience would have
recognized this fact. The rich comedy
of the tavern scene after the robbery
at Gadshill, says Stoll, and of other
scenes as well, depends on the very
fact that Falstaff is a coward. D. C.
Boughner (Anglid) shows, by reference
to many early plays, how the charac-
teristics of the bragging Vice and of
the medieval caballarius gloriosus
combine with those of the Plautine
miles gloriosus in the literary ancestry
of Falstaff.

Reminding us of the fondness for
gagging of comic actors like Tarlton
and Kemp, Joseph Allen Bryant, Jr.,

96

SHAKESPEARE

suggests (S in Ph) that Shakespeare
succeeded in forestalling any gagging
of FalstafFs part by giving him 'the
best tricks in the clown's repertory',
while still making him 'an essential
part of the play in which he appeared'.
He claims further that 'Falstaff,
whether by accident or design, also
assimilated and perpetuated the living
memory of the greatest clown of them
all, Dick Tarlton'. In Falstaff's words
at ii. iv. 463, 'thou art essentially made
without seeming so', Henry Hitch
Adams (Sh Q) rejects the emendation
of 'made' to 'mad'. Relating this speech
to the earlier one (246-53) in which
Falstaff declares that in sparing the
Prince at Gadshill he was 'a cowarde
on instinct', he explains it as mean-
ing 'that Hal is made of the essence of
princeliness, even though his actions
do not seem to show it'. C. A. Greer
suggests (NQ) that the reason why
Falstaff 's wit is less keen and appro-
priate in 2 Henry IV and The Merry
Wives than in 1 Henry IV is that in
the later plays 'he does not have to
fulfil the dramatic purpose for which
he was created, that of entertaining
Hal'.

Robert Adger Law writes (Sh Q)
about a passage concerning Edmund
Mortimer in Hall's Chronicle the full
significance of which has not been
seen by editors of 1 Henry IV. G.
Blakemore Evans points out, also in
Sh Q, that there is no authority for the
reading 'elfskin' at n. iv. 225. Quartos
1 and 2 have 'elsskin', and in view of
the surrounding imagery, Evans be-
lieves that this may be a compositor's
misreading of 'elshin', a variant of
'elsin', an awl.

C. Overbury Fox proposes (NQ) that
at 2 Henry IV 9 iv. iv. 92, 'haunch of
winter' should be emended to 'haunt'
or 'haunts of winter'.

Warren D. Smith (JEGP) develops
the view that the Choruses of Henry
V 'were added some time after the

play had been written, possibly after
the publication in 1600 of the quarto,
which omits them . . . and that they
were composed especially for a per-
formance at Court'. He claims that
the reference in the fifth Chorus to
'the general of our gracious Empress',
generally held to be an allusion to the
Earl of Essex, applies more appro-
priately to Essex's successor as com-
mander-in-chief in Ireland, Charles
Blount, Lord Mountjoy. From the
references in the Prologue to 'this
wooden O', 'this unworthy scaffold',
and 'this cockpit', he infers that the
Court performance was held in the
cockpit at Whitehall Palace.

J. C. Maxwell (DUJ) discusses
several passages in Henry V, and one
from the quarrel scene in Julius
Caesar, where he thinks Dover Wilson
has underestimated the subtlety of
Shakespeare's effects. He himself be-
lieves that Shakespeare meant more
to be read into these episodes than
Wilson is willing to admit. Haldeen
Braddy (Sh Q) finds in Froissart the
source of the Dauphin's boast about
his flying horse (in. vii). At n. ii. 103-4,
'though the truth of it stands off as
gross As black and white', J. C. Max-
well (NQ) would like to read 'black on
white'; had 'on' been spelt 'one', it
might well have been misread as 'and'.

Robert Adger Law (S in Eng) con-
siders in some detail the closeness with
which the chronicles are followed as
sources for the three parts of Henry
VI, and finds significant differences
between the treatment in Part I and
in the other two parts. He concludes
that 'the composition and general style
of Parts 2 and 3 link them together in
a manner different from their junction
with Part 1 and imply some difference
in authorship'. Part 1 seems to him to
be fundamentally a Talbot play, re-
vised by Shakespeare probably after
the composition of the other two parts.
Alvin B. Kernan (S in Ph) notes the

SHAKESPEARE

97

frequency and aptness with which
sea-wind-tide imagery is used in 3
Henry VI. This dominant symbol of
the play is represented in The True
Tragedie of Richard Duke of York
only by a couple of conventional ship
images of the type found everywhere
in Elizabethan poetry, and any theory
of the relationship of the two plays
must take into account the absence of
the sea-wind-tide pattern in The True
Tragedie. For the father-son episode
in 3 Henry VI, n. v, Joan Rees (NQ)
thinks that Shakespeare's source was
probably a passage in Gorboduc (v.
iL ISOfL) rather than the generally
accepted passage in Hall's Chronicle.

In an article on Richard III (Sh Q)
Wolfgang H. Clemen speaks of how
'the astounding originality of [Shake-
speare's] plays is balanced by the
equally amazing integration and amal-
gamation of dramatic tradition'. He
sees Richard HI as an early example
of this relationship. Shakespeare, says
Clemen, 'gave roundness, unity and
coherence to the chronicle play'.
Richard HI, for example, has an ex-
tremely well-planned and closely knit
plot; it has also what O. J. Campbell
called a 'carefully wrought moral
architecture'.

This year's studies of Troilus and
Cressida show some diversity of opin-
ion. In a lecture printed in Sh J
Rudolf Alexander Schroder affirms
that the Prologue is an integral part of
the play. The whole work he regards
as a species of sermon on penitence,
with a special application to the times
in which it was written. Winifred M. T.
Nowottny (Ess Crif) sees in the play
'a great antithesis between two ap-
proaches to life, that of the statesman
and that of the individual creative
imagination'. Ulysses typifies policy,
and Troilus is a type of the poetic
nature, and the antithesis between
them is 'that between Opinion and
Value between social values and pri-

B 5641 ,

vate imaginative values*. George Wil-
bur Meyer (Tulane Stud in Eng) thinks
it 'clear that Shakespeare has given us
a picture of confusion, of political,
social, and moral chaos. Every planned
action in the play, except the treachery
of Achilles in the gang murder of
Hector, ends in futility.' Shakespeare's
main point in Troilus and Cressida
'was that war fought in an unworthy
cause by opponents dedicated to false
ideals of private honor results in folly,
frustration, and disorder for both
sides'. Abbie Findlay Potts lists (Sh Q)
some Jonsonian echoes which suggest
that Shakespeare was influenced by
Cynthia's Revels and Poetaster in the
writing of Troilus and Cressida, and
which throw light on passages other-
wise puzzling or out of key with the
traditional story of Troy.

D. J. Enright (Ess Crif) describes
Coriolanus as having 'certain qualities
of an intellectual debate'. The treat-
ment of the central figure 'as a subject
for argument' extends even to the com-
mon people. The tragedy is 'the tra-
gedy of Rome: its sickness is traced to
a pronounced lack of self-understand-
ing both in its people and in Corio-
lanus'. Also writing in Ess Crit, Ken-
neth Muir expresses the opinion that
the critics, apart from John Palmer,
have been too harsh in their view of
the Tribunes as 'utter scoundrels' or
'comic villains'. He reminds us that on
occasions the Tribunes behave more
nobly than the Patricians and suggests
that Shakespeare saw the points of
view of both parties.

In The Tale of Julia and Pruneo
(HLB\ Ernest H. Wilkins enlarges
upon James Wardrop's description
(HLB, 1 953) of an anonymous novella,
one of ten items in a fifteenth-century
manuscript in the Harvard College
Library, which is in many respects
very close to the story of Romeo and
Juliet. Wilkins shows that Luigi da
Porto, who gave the story of Romeo

98.

SHAKESPEARE

and Juliet what is virtually its final
form, based it to a great extent on
Masuccio da Salerno's tale of Mari-
otto and Ganozza; he very probably
also 'knew and used either the existing
novella of Julia and Pruneo ... or a
lost version very closely related to it*.
Rolf Soellner (NQ) believes that
Shakespeare took from Erasmus's De
Conscribendis Epistolis the associa-
tion of philosophy with armour and
milk at Romeo and Juliet, m. iii. 54-
56. Benjamin Boyce (NQ) takes editors
of Romeo and Juliet to task for adopt-
ing Pope's 'yew-trees' and 'yew-tree*
at v. iii. 3, 137, instead of accepting
'young Trees' and *yong tree' from the
second Quarto. In Sh Q, Richard Hos-
ley, while agreeing that an upper level
of the stage was used in playing the
two Balcony scenes, disputes the cur-
rent theory that the upper stage was
used also for the 'Upbraiding' (in. v.
69-242), the Totion' scene (iv. iii), and
the 'Lamentation' (iv. v).

The imagery of Julius Caesar has
been largely neglected as a key to the
understanding of the structural unity
of the play. In an article in Sh Q R. A.
Foakes demonstrates that the various
themes in language and action 'all
suggest a full circle of events in the
play, civil war leading to civil war,
blood to blood, imaged in the begin-
ning and close of a day. They form
a large part of the play's structural
framework, and perhaps indicate that
the structural unity of Julius Caesar
lies in the birth and completion of the
rebellion.' The imagery also brings out
qualities in the characters of the three
principal figures, Caesar, Brutus, and
Cassius. All three are 'noble and yet
weak; none has the stature of hero
or villain*. Ernest Schanzer sets out
(N0 to establish for the anonymous
Caesar's Revenge an importance as a
source for Julius Caesar 'only second
to Plutarch'. He brings forward no
close verbal parallels, however, and

such general correspondences as are
found in the two plays appear to be
either commonplaces of Elizabethan
revenge tragedy or characteristic ex-
pressions of Shakespeare's outlook on
civil discord and on society as a whole.

Why does Julius Caesar, a play
otherwise deficient in humour, open
with the scene in which the Tribunes
bandy puns with a carpenter and a
cobbler? Norrnan Nathan suggests
(NQ) that this is Shakespeare's method
of establishing a good-humoured bond
between the actors and the ground-
lings in the theatre. Also in NQ,
Howard Parsons claims that in the
list of Dramatis Personae Flavius and
Marullus should be described as sena-
tors rather than tribunes. A glance at
Plutarch should convince him that
editors are right in accepting Rowe's
description of them as tribunes.

Iii a Yale Festival lecture (see n. 23)
Eugene M. Waith argues that sacrilege
is a central theme of Macbeth. *Mac-
beth's ambition is not only a threat to
the entire kingdom of Scotland, but a
defiance of everything that makes him
a man, with his special place in the
divine scheme of things.' This theme is
strikingly developed in Act IV, Scene
iii, a scene which is as a rule drastically
cut in the theatre and almost entirely
ignored by critics. Waith pleads for
its retention in the theatre and its more
careful consideration by scholars. The
sin of Macbeth, says Robert Speaight,
'was essentially a sin against nature*
(Nature and Grace in 'Macbeth', in
Ess by Divers Hands. See Chapter I,
n. 38). Speaight shows how far Mac-
beth and his wife 'have to become un-
natural' before they can commit their
crimes. In time, however, 'avenging
grace' takes charge of events, and
order is restored. 'No ending in Shake-
speare', Speaight declares, 'is more
profoundly theological' than that of
Macbeth. In 'Macbeth': A Study in
Paradox (Sh J) Margaret D. Burrell

SHAKESPEARE

99

discusses 'the murky ambiguity of
morality and language that distin-
guishes the play'. In no other play,
she says, 'are the anomalies of man's
nature more vividly portrayed. . . .
Nowhere else is the purposeful inci-
dence of linguistic anomalies higher.'
All who breathe the infected air, but
above all the Macbeths, speak at times
in equivocal terms.

Other writers are interested in para-
dox in Macbeth. F. G. Schoff (NQ)
points out that the 'fair is fouF para-
dox is developed with great variety
and intensity in the 'Dark Lady' son-
nets. K. B. Danks (NQ) feels that the
recurrence of the word 'strange', which
is used eighteen times, adds to 'the
prevailing mystery that enshrouds' the
play. Paul H. Kocher (Sh Q) contends
that the doctor who attends Lady
Macbeth has more dramatic impor-
tance than has been recognized. Has
remarks show that she is not suffering
from melancholy, a physical condi-
tion, but from a guilty conscience.
The interior action of Macbeth', says
Kocher, *is basically about conscience
and its effect.' Norman Nathan (NQ)
suggests that in writing the passage at
I. iv. 28-33 ('I have begun to plant
thee . . .') Shakespeare had in mind
the opening verses of Jeremiah xii.
According to Jeremiah, it is the
ungodly who are being planted to
flourish. Howard Parsons (NQ) pro-
poses emendations in five passages of
the play.

In failing to recognize the funda-
mental importance of Fortinbras in
the design and symbolism of Hamlet,
says Jean Paris, in Hamlet, ou les Per-
sonnages du Fils, 39 all previous com-
mentators have missed the central sig-
nificance of the play. Like Hamlet and
Laertes, Fortinbras has laid upon him
the duty of avenging a father, a father

39 Hamlet, ou les Personnages du Fits, par
Jean Paris. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1953.
pp. 189. Fr. 450.

who was slain, and some of his terri-
tories seized, by King Hamlet on the
very day that Prince Hamlet was born.
His situation is parallel to that of
Hamlet, in that he too is a dispos-
sessed prince who is prevented from
carrying out his vengeance. The three
young men represent different degrees
of the same personage, the Son of the
Son versus Father theme which figures
so frequently in early literature. For-
tinbras is the initial victim of the play,
and it ends in the restitution of his
rights; he is, in effect, its hero.

Karl Polanyi (Yale Rev) sees the
key to Hamlet in the line, To be or
not to be; that is the question'. Ham-
let does not wish to die, yet he hates
to live. That is his dilemma. Adrien
Bonjour (Eng Stud) takes exception to
the conclusions of a PMLA article of
1951 by Roy W. Battenhouse. There
is not the slightest hint in the tragedy,
he says, 'that Christian assumptions
and resources might have avoided a
pitiable outcome'. In a new analysis
(Sh Q) of the imagery in Hamlet which
centres on sickness, mortality, and
corruption, Richard D. Altick observes
how insistently Shakespeare stresses
the notion of the stench that accom-
panies gangrenous wounds and putre-
faction. Lester G. Crocker (PMLA)
makes a comparative study of Hamlet,
Don Quijote, and La Vida es Sueno,
in which he finds 'strong bonds of
relationship' which, in their contrasts
as well as their similarities, reflect
light from one work upon the other,
and . . . upon the intellectual outlook
and preoccupations of the time*.

S. G. E. Lythe (NQ) suggests that
Shakespeare moved the setting of
Hamlet from Jutland to Elsinore be-
cause he would know from merchants
and sailors a great deal about Elsinore,
a town which occupied a key position
in Baltic trade. In Sh Q Roger J.
Trienens brings forward parallels to
support his belief that, in his inter-

100

SHAKESPEARE

change with Polonius at in. ii 393-
402, Hamlet likens the cloud to a
camel, a weasel, and a whale because
these creatures all symbolize lust. Ex-
amining the scene in which Ophelia's
body is brought to burial, Maurice J.
Quinlan concludes (Sh Q) that the rites
referred to are those of the Catholic
burial service.

In an article in TLS (31 Dec.), E. P.
Kuhl puts forward the view that Spen-
ser's references to Hercules in The
Faerie Queene (v. i. 2) and Protha-
lamion, and Shakespeare's in The
Merchant of Venice and Hamlet, are
to be taken as allusions to the Earl of
Essex. John Waldron (NQ) wants the
word 'machine* in Hamlet's letter to
Ophelia (n. ii. 124) to be glossed as
'this device' (of an antic disposition),
'this game'. It could thus be seen 'as
a kind of hurriedly improvised "code"
word', which Hamlet hopes Ophelia
will understand, but which will puzzle
his enemies. In Sh Q Willard B. Pope
quotes from the diary of Benjamin
Robert Haydon two interesting pas-
sages in which Haydon speaks of per-
formances of Ducis's version of Ham-
let that he saw at Versailles, and of the
'dreadful* impression they made on
him.

Defending King Lear against
charges of structural weakness, Otto
Bergemann sets out to show (Sh J)
that the nature both of the central
figure, who after the first act is 'pas-
sive and suffering', and of the action,
which involves extremes of feeling,
imposes a different type of presenta-
tion from that of the other tragedies.
James L. Rosier (JEGP) discusses the
'Lear Universe' in relation to Hooker's
exposition of the lex aeterna, which
governs 'the universe as a whole and
in its component parts, figured in the
metaphor of the great chain of being'.

Analysing in King Lear the recur-
rent strain of imagery based on cloth-
ing and nakedness, Thelma Nelson

Greenfield shows (Sh Q), by reference
to several miracle and morality plays,
that Shakespeare's handling of this
motif retains important traditional
associations; Shakespeare's artistry in
using it, however, is more complex and
more fully satisfying than that of his
predecessors. The link between Shake-
speare and the medieval playwrights
is illustrated also by K. W. Salter, who
draws attention (NQ) to some simi-
larities between Lear and Everyman.
In the same issue of NQ Theodore C.
Hoepfner gives reasons for assigning
the last speech of the play to Edgar,
with the Folio, rather than to Albany,
with the Quarto. Also in NQ, Gyles
Isham elaborates a suggestion of G. M.
Young that Shakespeare may have
been drawn to write Lear by the story
of Brian Annesley of Lee, who died in
1604. Annesley had three daughters,
the youngest of whom was named
Cordell or Cordelia on the occasion
of her marriage and in the entry of her
burial; his relations with them were
not unlike those which Holinshed de-
scribes as existing between Lear and
his daughters. D. M. Anderson (NQ)
proposes that 'With plumed helm thy
state begins thereat' (iv. ii. 57) should
be emended to 'With plumed helm his
state begins thy rout'.

Kenneth Muir (NQ) draws attention
to 'the iteration in Othello of "free"
and "liberal", and the frequent con-
trast between freedom and slavery'. It
is generally accepted that Shakespeare
owes his reference to 'the Ponticke
Sea' (Othello, in. iii. 453-6) to his
reading of Holland's translation of the
Elder Pliny. Terence Spencer (MLR)
suggests that the phenomenon of the
perpetual current of the Bosporus and
the Hellespont was so much a com-
monplace in Elizabethan, as in an-
cient, times, that Shakespeare would
not need to be told about it by Pliny.
In PQ Marvin Rosenberg joins issue
with E. E. Stoll over his 'sceptical

SHAKESPEARE

101

criticism' of Othello. In S in Ph Rosen-
berg discusses the eighteenth-century
alterations and cutting of Othello on
the stage, and their interest as reflec-
tions 'of the early triumph of "refine-
ment"'.

In a Yale Festival lecture (see n. 23),
Norman Holmes Pearson describes
Antony and Cleopatra as 'a play on
words, as well as a play made from
them'. At the beginning Antony and
Cleopatra seem inaccessible to us; they
speak in superlatives. As they prove
their right to share nobility, their
words no longer carry hyperbole. In
A Plot-Chain in 'Antony and Cleo-
patra' (NQ) Ernest Schanzer refers to
Shakespeare's use of 'chains or clusters
of images', images so closely associated
in his mind that, when one element of
such a chain occurs to him, the rest
follow almost as a matter of course.
Schanzer suggests that this habit of
association could extend beyond his
choice of words to the plotting of his
plays. The sequence of events in An-
tony and Cleopatra embracing the
marriage of Antony and Octavia and
the renewed rupture with Caesar is
closely similar to a sequence in King
John.

In an 'image-cluster' centred on the
word 'kite' in the first scene, Kenneth
Muir (NQ) finds support for Shake-
speare's partial authorship of The Two
Noble Kinsmen.

David I. Masson (Neophil) analyses
several passages in the Sonnets to
bring out various 'modes of repeti-
tion, permutation and modulation' in
sound, and the aesthetic effect of such
sound-patterns. In States of Mind:
States of Consciousness (Ess Crii),
James R. Caldwell illustrates from
Sonnet LXIV his thesis that 'the pur-
pose of a poem ... is to define and
convey to the reader a total state of
consciousness'. Douglas L. Peterson
(Sh g) claims that the source for Son-
net CXXIX (Th' expense of spirit . . .')

is a passage in Wilson's Arte of Rhe-
torique*

7. Theatre and Actors

From Robert Speaight comes an
excellent biography of William Poel, 40
written at the invitation of the Society
for Theatre Research to commemorate
the centenary of the birth, in 1 852, of
this unjustly neglected pioneer of
modern methods in Shakespearian
production. Speaight succeeds admir-
ably in recreating Poel's warm and
sensitive yet intensely compelling per-
sonality, and he gives a full account
of the devoted labours by which he
strove to promote a better understand-
ing of Shakespeare's stagecraft. This
well-documented book will be valued
by anyone interested in the production
of Elizabethan drama. In an article in
SNL Speaight enlarges upon Poel's
attempts to reconstruct Elizabethan
methods of staging, and upon his
'ferocious' pursuit of perfection in his
productions.

Two works by Hugh Hunt are rele-
vant to this survey. Old Vic Prefaces 41
is a collection of the 'prefaces' which
Hunt reads to his cast before produc-
tions at the Old Vic. These are practi-
cal guides to the acting of the plays,
and make no pretensions to being
scholarly; yet they contain much sen-
sible literary criticism, and often serve
as correctives to a too strictly academic
approach.

Under the title The Director in the
Theatre, 42 Hunt publishes four Rocke-
feller Foundation lectures which he
delivered at Bristol University, to-
gether with his 1954 Bergen Lecture

40 William Poel and the Elizabethan
Revival, by Robert Speaight. The Society
for Theatre Research. Heinemann. pp. 302.
215.

41 Old Vic Prefaces, by Hugh Hunt.
Routledge. pp. xii+193. 16s.

42 The Director in the Theatre, by Hugh
Hunt. Routledge. pp. ix+111. 10s. 6d*

102

SHAKESPEARE

at Yale. In the first of these stimulat-
ing talks Hunt defines what he under-
stands by the term 'the Art of the
Theatre', and examines the function
of the director, with special reference
to the work of Craig, Poel, Granville-
Barker, Stanislavsky, and Bertolt
Brecht. He goes on to discuss the obli-
gations of the director towards the
author, the actor, and the audience;
and finally he suggests methods where-
by the theatre may be enabled to hold
its own against competing forms of
entertainment. The subject of the Ber-
gen Lecture is more specifically Shake-
spearian production. Here Hunt faces
many of the problems confronting the
modern producer of Shakespeare;
among other things, he advocates the
use of an open stage and of simple
forms of scenic representation.

In a pamphlet 43 sponsored by the
Society for Theatre Research, Arthur
Colby Sprague records many examples
of stage business in Shakespearian pro-
ductions which have come to his notice
since he wrote Shakespeare and the
Actors (1944). Sprague's notes add a
good deal to our knowledge of the
stage-history of Hamlet, Macbeth,
and / Henry IV; and he has discovered
new facts about the acting at various
periods of several other plays.

Margery Bailey pleads (Eng Jourri)
for a closer attention to the impact of
Shakespeare in the theatre as a basis
for the criticism of his plays. She illus-
trates her thesis with some perceptive
comments on The Merchant of Venice
and Hamlet.

In Producing Shakespeare, a lecture
delivered at the Yale Festival (see
n. 23), Frank McMullan discusses
past conventions in the production of
Shakespeare, Pointing out that Eliza-
bethan methods of staging are not

43 The Stage Business in Shakespeare's
Plays, by Arthur Colby Sprague. Society
for Theatre Research, pp. 35. (For mem-
bers of the Society.)

known in all their details, he puts for-
ward a case for using at least some
modified version of the present-day
stage which will allow of simplicity of
background, speed, continuity, and an
intimate co-operation of actors and
audience. Reviewing some modern
tendencies in the acting of Shake-
spearian roles (Sh S), T. C. Kemp
commends the vigour and individual-
ity which go into the playing of the
minor no less than the major parts; he
illustrates his comments by reference
to some striking recent productions.

In a Yale Festival lecture (see n. 23),
Davis P. Harding, speaking of Shake-
speare's audience, suggests that it was
collectively a better-educated audience
than is generally supposed. This is
also the view of Stanley Gardner who,
in a letter in TLS (14 May), points out
that Lylies Grammar 'was going
through a yearly impression of 20,000
copies', and that writer after writer
'makes it clear that his book is in-
tended for the poor and humble'.

In Vaulting the Rails (Sh S) J. W.
Saunders argues persuasively that the
yard of the Elizabethan theatre must
have been used in some types of scene
requiring two levels. On such a hypo-
thesis the difficulties attending the use
of some part of the upper stage in the
monument scenes of Antony and
Cleopatra would be removed; more-
over, some of the crowd scenes and
battle scenes seem to demand this
method of staging. The use of 'Ways
to the Yard* would not only have im-
proved the accessibility of the stage;
it would also have increased the inti-
macy of actors and audience which
was so essential a feature of Eliza-
bethan production. In a letter in TLS
(10 Dec.) William Empson disputes
Hotson's 'arena' theory in relation to
'the Elizabethan stage as a whole, and
the Court stage in particular'. The evi-
dence does not support the view that
plays were acted on the floor at Court;

SHAKESPEARE

103

all the documents mention a stage.
Moreover, 'mansions', Empson be-
lieves, could only be conveniently used
against a 'back' to the stage. Also in
TLS (31 Dec.), W. W. Greg draws
attention to Hotson's error in calling
Twelfth Night a leap-year play; there
was a 29 February in 1599/1600, but
not in 1600/1.

Carol Jones Carlisle (S in PK) re-
calls several early nineteenth-century
expressions of Lamb's view that 'the
plays of Shakespeare are less calcu-
lated for performance on a stage than
those of almost any dramatist what-
ever', and goes on to show that the
faith of the players 'that only through
acting could Shakespeare's plays re-
ceive their best interpretation' tri-
umphed over the closet critics. In a
paper printed in Neue Schweizer
Rundschau Rudolf Stamm describes
some of the ways in which the Shake-
spearian research of recent years has
been of service to producers and ac-
tors. Then he discusses the innovations
of such pioneers as William Poel,
Nugent Monck, and Granville-Barker,
and the experiments in Elizabethan
staging carried out at the Mermaid
Theatre and at Harrow School.

In The Times (26 March) Leslie
Hotson identifies and describes the
Curtain theatre in a 'View of the
Cittye of London from the North to-
wards the Sowth' which was probably
made shortly after 1600, and which is
in a collection at the University of
Utrecht. In Sh Q A. M. Nagler writes
about the various types of stage that
were used on the Continent in the six-
teenth century. In Sh S Charles J.
Sisson gives some new information
about the Red Bull company and its
actors. In Shakespeare and the Acting
of Edward Alley n, also in Sh S, Wil-
liam A. Armstrong demolishes the
view that parts of Hamlet's advice to
the players are to be regarded as stric-
tures on Alleyn's acting. Alleyn was

an exceptionally gifted and versatile
actor, he was highly esteemed by those
who were most competent to judge his
abilities, and his views on acting al-
most certainly coincided with those of
Shakespeare himself.

Twice Have the Trumpets Sounded 44
is a record of the second Shakespear-
ian festival held at Stratford, Ontario,
compiled by Tyrone Guthrie, Robert-
son Davies, and Grant MacDonald.
Davies provides a lively account of
Guthrie's methods as a director, and
reviews the productions The Taming
of the Shrew, Measure for Measure,
and the Oedipus Rex of Sophocles.
Guthrie discusses the present policy
of the festival and makes suggestions
for the future. Macdonald contributes
charming sketches of the principal
players in their various roles.

In Sh Q Arnold Edinborough tells
how this Canadian festival was
brought into being through the initia-
tive of Mr. Tom Patterson, and de-
scribes the productions of Richard HI
and All's Well with which it was in-
augurated in 1953.

Several further articles in Sh Q are
devoted to reviews of Shakespearian
seasons or productions. Richard David
reviews the 1954 season of Stratford on
Avon. Arthur Colby Sprague covers
Richard HI, Coriolanus, Othello, and
Hamlet, as they were staged in New
York in 1953-4. Bernard Miles and
Josephine Wilson describe three sea-
sons of production at the Mermaid
Theatre. Dorothy Rose Gribble writes
about the first Shakespearian tour, with
Macbeth, of Plantagenet Productions
in 1954. Ross Phares discusses the Cen-
tenary College productions of Hamlet
and Romeo and Juliet. Taking us off
the beaten track, Alan S. Downer gives

44 Twice Have the Trumpets Sounded: A
Record of the Stratford Shakespearean Fes-
tival in Canada, 1954, by Tyrone Guthrie,
Robertson Davies, and Grant Macdonald.
Toronto: Clarke, Irwin. pp. xiv+193.
$4.50.

104

SHAKESPEARE

a most interesting account of the 'Ham-
let Year' in Scandinavia.

In Sh Q Hugo Klajn describes the
work of the best Yugoslav translators
and actors of Shakespeare, and the
impact of Shakespeare on the new
Yugoslavia, where interest in him is
'greater than ever before and greater
than in any other foreign dramatist*.

Many other articles on Shakespear-
ian productions on stage, cinema, tele-
vision, and radio are listed in the Sh Q
bibliography.

8. Allusions and Echoes

Several contributors to NQ draw
attention to possible Shakespearian
echoes or allusions. C. G. Thayer sug-
gests that in the description of Win-
the-Fight Littlewit in Bartholomew
Fair (iv. v. 21-27), Jonson, while
taking his details from Markham's
Cavelarice, is also satirizing Shake-
speare's description of the horse in
Venus and A donis, 295-300. A. Daven-
port finds parallels between passages
in Lyly's Campaspe and two speeches

of Falstaff. Frank W. Bradbrook
argues that Cleopatra's 'dream' of
Antony owes a particular debt to a
passage in Nashe's Christ's Tears over
Jerusalem, and that Shakespeare may
have had the same speech in mind
when he wrote Prospero's 'farewell
speech' in The Tempest. Leonard
Schwartzstein notes in The Double
Falsehood several borrowings from
Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and
Lucrece. And C. Overbury Fox finds
echoes of Gaunt's speech, This royal
throne of kings . . .', in Richard Nic-
cols's Sir Thomas Overburie's Vision
(1616).

In JEGP Francis J. Nock shows
how deeply E. T. A. Hoffmann ad-
mired and was influenced by Shake-
speare; he found in Shakespeare's
works 'the perfect expression of his
dramaturgical beliefs concerning
character, plot, unity, form of expres-
sion'. In Sh Q Edward P. Vandiver,
Jr., finds that the American novelist
William Gilmore Simms owes much
to Shakespeare in his 'border roman-
ces of the South'.

VIII. LATER ELIZABETHAN AND
EARLY STUART DRAMA

By ARTHUR BROWN

PRIDE of place amongst the contribu-
tions to this subject in 1954 must un-
doubtedly be given to Miss Madeleine
Doran's Endeavors of Art, 1 in which
she has attempted a synthesis of the
many studies which have been made
of the various parts of the background
against which the Elizabethan drama-
tists worked critical theory, rhetori-
cal theory and education, inherited
literary forms, theatrical conventions,
ideas about style, and so on. She takes
as her starting-point some ideas pro-
posed by Heinrich Wolfflinin his Prin-
ciples of Art History and attempts to
apply these to literature as he applied
them to painting, sculpture, and archi-
tecture. His thesis is that alterations
from age to age in the mode of vision,
or of imaginative beholding, alter the
formal possibilities open to the artists
of any given period. The historian has
to reckon with stages of the imagina-
tion. Instead of asking "How do these
works affect me, the modern man?"
and estimating their expressional con-
tent by that standard, the historian
must realise what choice of formal
possibilities the epoch had at its dis-
posal. An essentially different inter-
pretation will result.' Miss Doran sets
out to discover what choice of formal
possibilities was open to the Eliza-
bethan dramatist, and the result is
an extremely detailed and valuable
account of the context of ideas and
assumptions about literature in which
he worked. She discusses first a set of

1 Endeavors of Art. A study of form in
Elizabethan drama, by Madeleine Doran.
Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, pp.
xv+482. $6.

limiting renaissance attitudes towards
and ideas about literary art generally,
then the important ideas about the
drama particularly, and the problems,
particularly those of structure, faced
by the dramatists; she discusses the
important subject of 'eloquence', and
the related ideas of imitation, verisimi-
litude and decorum, and the didactic
theory of poetry. She then gives an
account of the concepts of kinds of
drama, and the conflicts between old
and new forms, problems of character
and plot construction, and the final
great problem of achieving form ade-
quate to meaning. Not the least in-
teresting part of her material is con-
cerned with the discrepancies between
Elizabethan literary theory and prac-
tice, the former claiming no small
amount of lip service, but frequently
lagging behind the latter. Her discus-
sion of the various ways in which the
dramatists, in particular Shakespeare
and Ben Jonson, faced up to and
solved these many problems forms an
extremely valuable contribution to
the understanding of Elizabethan and
Jacobean drama. This is not an easy
book to read the nature of the sub-
ject forbids that but it is one which
the serious student of the period can-
not afford to ignore.

George Chapman and John Ford
claim individual studies this year. The
former is the subject of a book by
Ennis Rees, 2 who feels that Chapman's
tragedies have been misunderstood
with remarkable consistency. In his

2 The Tragedies of George Chapman:
Renaissance Ethics in Action, by Ennis Rees.
Harvard U.P. 0-U.P. pp.223. 36s.

106

LATER ELIZABETHAN AND

first chapter he makes use of much of
Chapman's non-dramatic work to
build up a picture of the dramatist's
'Christian Humanism', and his con-
ception of a good man as one in whom
learning and virtue combine to give
him self-mastery, one who opposes
justice to policy and the contemplative
life to the active. In the light of this
creed Ennis Rees then re-examines the
tragedies and shows how Bussy and
Byron, far from being heroic charac-
ters, represent in effect all that Chap-
man believed a virtuous man should
avoid, while Cato, Clermont, and
Chabot represent the truly virtuous
heroes in whom self-control has made
all the difference. Rees has some in-
teresting remarks to make on Chap-
man's use of irony and contrast, and
on the chronology of the plays.

Robert Davril's Le Drame de John
Ford 3 is indeed an exhaustive study of
the dramatist from almost every con-
ceivable angle. Beginning with an in-
troductory chapter on melancholy in
the drama from Marston to Ford and
the relationship of this to the Stoicism
which is reflected in much of Ford's
early work, the book contains some
new biographical material, a study of
Ford's early prose and verse, a discus-
sion of his collaborations with Dekker,
Rowley, Middleton, Webster, and
Massinger, of the influence upon his
plays of Burton's Anatomy of Melan-
choly, of his characters, themes, and
dramatic technique. The extreme
thoroughness with which Davril has
dealt with his subject can arouse
nothing but admiration.

Some of the material in Jean Gagen's
book, The New Woman: Her Emer-
gence in English Drama 1600-1730*
falls within the purview of this chap-

3 Le Drame de John Ford, by Robert
Davril. Paris: Didier. pp.554. Fr. 1,400.

4 The New Woman: Her Emergence in
English Drama 1600-1730, by Jean Gagen.
New York: Twayne Publishers, pp. 193.
$3.50.

ter, for she is concerned with the in-
terest, very often satirical, shown by
writers of the period in the learned
lady', represented, for example, by
Eugenia in Sir Gyles Goosecap, Philo-
calia in Marston's Parasitaster, Lady
Would-Be in Volpone, Rosalura and
LilliaBianca in Fletcher's Wild-Goose
Chase. Most of Miss Gagen's material,
however, is post-Restoration, for, as
she points out, before 1600 the learned
lady was still too much of a novelty
to have occurred to playwrights of the
public theatres as a fit subject for
serious dramatic treatment; satire was
a different matter, but Miss Gagen
suggests that it was perhaps unwise
for dramatists to indulge in too much
satire on the subject while the most
eminent of all learned ladies was still
on the throne.

The Malone Society continued its
valuable work in making available in
reliable form not only plays but other
material of dramatic interest. The first
of its two. volumes for this year, Col-
lections HI, edited by Jean Robertson
and D. J. Gordon, is a Calendar of
Dramatic Records in the Books of the
Livery Companies of London, 1485-
1 640, and contains a wealth of fascinat-
ing information about the Midsummer
Shows and the Lord Mayors' Shows
during this period. A number of the
most prominent dramatists of the time,
among them Munday, Dekker, Mid-
dleton, and Heywood, were employed
by the Companies for the composition
of these pageants, and these records
show, in some detail, just how elabor-
ate they could be, and also how expen-
sive. Future dramatic historians will
find much valuable raw material in
this volume. The second of the Society's
publications was Robert Daborne's
Poor Man's Comfort, edited from
British Museum MS. Egerton 1994 by
Kenneth Palmer. The Introduction
sets out the little that is known for
certain about the play, but quite pro-

EARLY STUART DRAMA

107

perly refrains from guessing about the
tantalizing problem of the relation-
ship between this manuscript version
of the play and the version printed in
the quarto of 1655; the aim of this
edition, says the editor, is to provide
a basis for further investigation.

From the Golden Cockerel Press
came a very handsome edition of
William Browne's Inner Temple
Masque, Circe and Ulysses, edited,
with an essay on Browne and the
English Masque, by Gwyn Jones.
This is, of course, a collector's piece,
and all concerned in its production are
to be congratulated on a remarkably
attractive volume. Paper, printing,
illustrations, and binding are of the
standard we have come to expect from
this press, and Jones's essay is in keep-
ing with its setting.

It is convenient to mention here a
note by John P. Cutts on the original
music to Browne's Inner Temple
Masque, and other Jacobean Masque
music (NQ). Cutts reports the dis-
covery of an original setting of the
Sirens' song, 'Steer hither steer your
winged pines', in an early seventeenth
century music manuscript in St.
Michael's College Library, Tenbury
Wells. He believes that the setting may
be Robert Johnson's, although no com-
poser's name appears. A companion
manuscript in the same library con-
tains settings of songs from Daniel's
Hymen's Triumph, Jonson's Oberon,
and Campion's Lords' Masque.

Marlowe received a good deal of
attention this year. In The Ancestry
of Christopher Marlowe (NQ) P. D.
Mundy attempts to build up a genea-
logical table of the dramatist's ances-
tors in Canterbury and other parts
of Kent from an examination of a
number of wills proved in the Arch-
deaconry of Canterbury; there are,
perhaps, some rather weak links in
the chain.

In 1951 T. M. Pearce wrote an article

(MLQ) in which he discussed the first
part of Tamburlaine as showing Mar-
lowe's conception of his hero as a
soldier-poet or scholar-warrior in the
mould of the Italian courtier described
by Castiglione. In the same periodical
this year he takes up the words which
appear on the title-page of the third
edition of the second part (1606),
'. . . his forme of exhortation and
discipline to his three Sonnes . . .', and
suggests that discipline in the sense
used by Tamburlaine was an out-
growth of proposals by Ascham,
Elyot, and others for training in arms
and physical skills along with intellec-
tual and moral studies; that the second
part of the play portrays the education
of at least two youths along the lines
proposed by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in
his recommendations for the establish-
ment of a Royal Academy; and that
finally the play may be considered
Marlowe's answer to Gosson and
others who called the plays of the time
mirrors of effeminate and degenerate
ways of life.

Irving Ribner writes on Marlowe
and Machiavelli (Comp Lit) and dis-
cusses the many misunderstandings by
scholars of the position and influence
of Machiavelli in Elizabethan thought
and literature. He finds a 'peculiar am-
bivalence' in the situation, in that 'we
find the name Machiavelli used as a
symbol for all that is evil for Eliza-
bethan Englishmen and as a tag for
the villains of stage and fiction. On
the other hand we find Machiavelli's
thought widely paralleled in Elizabe-
than political writings, even by those
very writers who at other times make
free use of the popular stereotype of
Machiavellianism.* This ambivalence
is particularly clear in Marlowe. 'On
the one hand we find in Marlowe's
serious political thought, particularly
in Tamburlaine, about as close an ap-
proximation of Machiavelli's central
premises and conclusions as anywhere

108

LATER ELIZABETHAN AND

in Elizabethan writings. On the other
hand we have the classic example of
popular Machiavellianism in The Jew
of Malta.' Ribner discusses both plays
in detail to show how in the latter, des-
pite its prologue, there is absolutely
no reflection of Machiavellfs own
ideas, while in the former Marlowe
treats Tamburlaine entirely in the
tradition developed for him by the
humanist historians, 'a symbol of the
Renaissance virtu, precisely the type
of leader whom Machiavelli saw as
capable of reforming a corrupt Italy,
unifying it, and expelling its foreign
invaders'. In the one play there is the
popular stage burlesque of Machia-
velli, in the other a serious exposition of
his actual philosophy. Ribner also dis-
cusses 'Tamburlaine' and 'The Wars
of Cyrus' (JEGP\ suggesting that J. P.
Brawner, in his edition of the latter in
1942, overstates the case for its being
nothing more than a romantic play.
Ribner believes that there is in it also
a distinct element of the Elizabethan
notion of the function of history, the
use of events of the past in order to
teach political doctrine of serious con-
temporary significance. It bears some
relation to the developing Tudor his-
tory play not only in political doctrine
but in certain motifs which continue
to be traditional characteristics of the
soldier-king. Ribner discusses the
norm of Elizabethan political ortho-
doxy (which includes such ideas as the
providential scheme of the universe,
the divine right of kings, passive obe-
dience of subjects) which he finds
clearly represented in The War of
Cyrus, and the opposing political here-
sies which he finds just as clearly in
Tamburlaine; he concludes that the
former play, far from being merely an
imitation of the latter, may in fact
have been published deliberately in
1594 as an antidote to it.

Astronomical imagery in Tambur-
laine is discussed by Mary Ellen Rickey

in Renaissance Papers (Univ. of South
Carolina). She draws attention to the
frequency with which Tamburlaine is
associated with the sun and Zenocrate
with some kind of benevolent heavenly
power which is the source of the sun's
light and strength. Part I of the play
then corresponds to the rise of the sun,
Part II to its decline, particularly after
the death of Zenocrate. Further astro-
nomical imagery is concerned with the
constellations which guided Tambur-
laine's birth, and, by contrast, those
controlling the horoscopes of his vic-
tims. Other scattered and more general
astronomical images serve the function
of keeping the colossal dimensions of
the action before the reader's mind.

Bent Sunesen's article, Marlowe and
the Dumb Show (Eng Stud) is con-
cerned very largely with a detailed
examination of Gaveston's opening
soliloquy in Edward II ('I must have
wanton Poets, pleasant wits . . .'). He
suggests that it 'makes an extraordin-
arily expressive gesture towards the
very centre of the dramatic structure'.
Each item in it seems to be a symbolic
foreshadowing of something that is to
follow in the play the nature of the
relationship between Gaveston and
Edward, the abandoning of manliness
on the part of the king, the treatment
of the king by his nobles. Sunesen
suggests that we have in this speech
Marlowe's attempt to do for his audi-
ence what was formerly done by the
now outmoded dumb show, to give in
brief, and often in an allegorical form,
the course of events in the individual
acts. The allegorical element had fre-
quently become so overpowering as to
be incomprehensible, and dumb show
had come to be used for other pur-
poses in a play. But Marlowe has
placed 'the deeply serious prefiguring
of the original kind of dumb show in
an impregnable position by making it
the nucleus of his dramatic structure'.
In Chapman's 'Caesar and Pompey':

EARLY STUART DRAMA

109

an Unperformed Play? (MLR) J. R.
Brown re-examines the evidence in
this problem. The author's dedication
to the 1631 copies suggests that the
play has never been acted; the title-
page of the 1653 copies states that it
has been acted at Blackf riars. Sir E. K.
Chambers suggested that performance
took place after 1631, but it has also
been suggested that the publishers of
the 1653 edition were making a false
statement to promote sales. Greg's bib-
liographical description of the seven-
teenth-century copies supports the lat-
ter view; those of 1652 and 1653 were
merely reissues of old sheets with new
title-pages, and with no name of prin-
ter, publisher, or bookseller. Against
this T. M. Parrott draws attention to
the unusual number and fullness of
the stage directions as compared with
Chapman's other plays, and suggests
that this might point to stage copy
carefully marked for performance be-
coming printer's copy. Brown disputes
this, and says that the stage directions
suggest rather that the author was
writing with a very clear picture of
the stage in his mind. He also suggests
that corruptions, discrepancies, and
muddles in the text, and the unwieldy
list of dramatis personae, support the
theory that the play was never acted.

Sir Gyles Goosecap has usually been
attributed to Chapman and dated be-
tween 1601 and 1603. In a note on the
dating (NQ) R. J. Fusillo gives reasons
for thinking that certain lines in the
play date it between the visit of Byron
in September 1601 and before the visit
of Nevers in April 1602. Other lines
he interprets as a reference to the
licence granted on 7 August 1601 to
William Lord Compton to 'take up
greyhounds for the queen's disport*,
and to the approaching winter of that
year.

P. G. Philias, in An Unpublished
Letter about* A Game at Chess' (MLN)
prints the letter of remonstrance from

the Spanish Ambassador to James
about the performance of the play
(from P.R.O. State Papers, Spain, S. P.
94/31, f. 132) which led to the ban-
ning of the play on 17 August 1624,
the closing of the Globe, and the sum-
moning of Middleton and the players
for an inquiry.

Another interesting document about
this play is printed and discussed by
Geoffrey Bullough in MLR. This is a
verse letter from a manuscript com-
monplace book in the British Museum
(MS. Add. 29492) written by a certain
Thomas Salisbury. In it Salisbury de-
scribes the play, interprets some of the
characters, and closely paraphrases
part of a scene. The manuscript also
contains versions of a rhyming peti-
tion supposedly addressed by Middle-
ton to James from prison. The book
belonged originally to Sir Thomas
Dawes, surveyor of the outposts and
customs farmer under James I and
Charles I; Bullough gives a brief ac-
count of the family and of the remain-
ing contents of the book, and suggests
that the letter was probably obtained
late in 1624 or early in 1625. He dis-
cusses the identity of its author, and
suggests that he was the son of Robert
Salisbury, a sailor, of All Hallows,
Barking, that he was born in 1587,
went to Christ's Hospital and Peter-
house, and became a priest in 1613.
Bullough then discusses some prob-
lems of dating and interpretation of
parts of the letter, and the method of
its composition. He concludes that
although it is practically worthless as
poetry, 'it is valuable as showing what
an educated member of the audience,
a divine interested in public affairs,
admired in Middleton's satiric play,
its topicality, its pointed personal refer-
ences, its "sound" attitude in religion
and politics, its witty fancy'.

Karl L. Holzknecht writes on The
Dramatic Structure of 'The Change-
ling' (Renaissance Papers, Univ. of

110

LATER ELIZABETHAN AND

South Carolina), He attempts to refute
some common criticisms of the play,
that it is, for example, a masterpiece
marred by an irrelevant, inferior sub-
plot, that it is unfortunately named
after a character in the secondary ac-
tion, and that as a whole it is poorly
constructed. He suggests first that the
play is not named after Antonio, the
pretended madman, who alone is
called 'the changeling' in the original
dramatis personae, since this word
could also be used in one or other of
its seventeenth-century senses of Beat-
riceherself,ofAlsemero,ofDiaphanta,
and of Franciscus; second, that the
main plot and the sub-plot are actually
parallels of action, the story of Alse-
mero and Beatrice being matched by
that of Jasperino and Diaphanta and
of Isabella and Alibius; third, that by
finally bringing together all the mad
transformations that various kinds of
love have wrought, by ringing varia-
tions on the theme of transformation,
the authors have produced a play that
is structurally sounder than critics have
supposed.

Thomas Heywood is dealt with in
two articles. In the first (Renaissance
Papers, Univ. of South Carolina)
Arthur Brown discusses some of the
problems to be faced in a proposed
edition of Heywood's plays. He draws
attention to the present unsatisfactory
state of affairs with regard to the text
of these plays, to the problems of
canon, of proof correction during the
printing process, and of corrections
and revisions in later editions. Hey-
wood claimed to have been involved
to some degree in about 220 plays, but
seems to have been careless about their
ultimate fate; only a small proportion
of this number can now be identified
with any certainty. A number of these
show signs of heavy proof -correction,
probably made necessary by Hey-
wood's abominable handwriting, but
it is not clear how authoritative these

corrections are. There is, however,
some slight evidence that Heywood
may have been personally concerned
in the revisions which appear in later
editions of some of the plays.

The second article on Heywood,
Th' untun'd KennelL Notes sur Tho-
mas Heywood et le theatre sous
Charles l er , by Michel Grivelet (fctud
ang\ takes its motto from Carew's
verse for Davenant's 1630 edition of
The just Italian. It contains material
about the attacks on actors connected
with the Red Bull and the Cockpit, and
discusses problems arising from Hey-
wood's Love's Mistress. Grivelet shows
how some of these points are illumin-
ated by reference to Heywood's pas-
sages on actors and acting in The
Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels, and
indicates how important it is that scho-
lars of the theatre should not confine
themselves entirely to dramatic works.

William W. Main, writing on 'Insula
IFortunatd in Jonson's 'Every Man out
of His Humour' (NQ), maintains that
the real significance of this reference
by Cordatus (Herford and Simpson,
iiL 438) has been overlooked. The
'fortunate island' very appropriately
signifies the land of fools and folly,
and therefore serves as a fitting setting
for the humorous butts of the play.
He finds support for this assertion in
Erasmus's Praise of Folly, where Folly
describes his birthplace: 'I was brought
f oorth even amidds the Islands which
. . . are called Fortunate' (Latin: 'in
ipsis insulis fortunatis'). Jonson was
thus drawing on what was probably
a well-established sixteenth-century
tradition.

In 'Catiline' and the Nature of Jon-
son's Tragic Fable (PMLA) Joseph A.
Bryant suggests that not enough seri-
ous consideration has been given to
Jonson's manipulation of his source
material in his two Roman tragedies,
and deals more particularly with Cati-
line from this point of view. 'Jonson's

EARLY STUART DRAMA

111

ordering of his fable, rightly under-
stood,' he says, 'gives the clue to why
and how he expected these plays to be
judged as tragedies rather than merely
as serious history plays.' He compares
Catiline in some detail with the source
material in Sallusfs Bellum Catilinae,
and shows that, although the influence
of Sallust is unmistakable in plot, dia-
logue, and characters, yet Jonson has
made certain significant additions,
notably those which concern the sup-
posed complicity of Julius Caesar in
Catiline's plot, taken from the accounts
of Plutarch and Dio, which result in a
plausible version of the conspiracy but
one which Sallust would have rejected
utterly. This setting of Caesar and
Catiline against Cato and Cicero has
the result of making the play into 'an
illuminating symbol for an action of
much greater scope: the whole rise and
fall of the Roman Republic'. Unfor-
tunately, in order to appreciate this
Jonson expects us to have in mind the
form of the material as it appeared in
Sallust and his other sources, and he
has clearly overdone the 'use of such
an allusive technique in a play inten-
ded for the public theatre'. Bryant
distinguishes between Shakespeare's
history plays, in which the focus of
interest is always on human personali-
ties and human conflicts, and Jonson's,
in which the state itself takes the role
of tragic protagonist.

The staging of the eavesdropping
scene in Sejanus has for long been a
problem. Allan Gilbert proposes a
solution in The Eavesdroppers in Jon-
son's 'Sejanus' (MLN). It will be re-
membered that Rufus and Opsius are
to conceal themselves 'betweene the
roofe, and seeling' while Latiaris, as
agent provocateur, leads Sabinus on
to treasonable words. Jonson gives no
directions in the text; Herford and
Simpson suggest that the scene was
played on the upper stage, that the
spies mounted a rope ladder into the

'hut' above, drew up the ladder after
them, and descended it again at the
discovery. Gilbert mentions several
objections to this theory, and suggests
that the answer is to be found in Taci-
tus, Jonson's source for the passage,
who is quoted in the margin of the
quarto, and who says that to hear the
subversive words the conspirators ap-
plied their ears to holes and cracks.
Sabinus and Latiaris are said by Taci-
tus to have talked in a bedroom; this
might have been acted in the 'study'
behind the platform stage, or on the
floor above, in the 'chamber'. If the
former, the spies would have talked
and listened in the 'chamber'; if the
latter the eavesdroppers would have
been higher up in the music gallery.
The reading 'holes' in the line, 'Shift
to our holes, with silence', is confirmed
by Tacitus; there is no need to adopt
the emendation 'hole' suggested by Sir
E. K. Chambers.

The plot of Volpone is the deceiver
deceived; the wisdom of the world is
made to appear foolish. This is the
position held by John S. Weld in his
article Christian Comedy: 'Volpone 1
(S in Ph). The opening scene has the
function of adumbrating this moral,
and of establishing the character of
Volpone, a foolish worldling worship-
ping gold. Misapplication of moral
satire and philosophy, use of rhetoric,
deliberate use of unrealism reminiscent
of masque and morality (with material
from popular sermons, emblem books,
books of devotion, and didactic verse)
all these lead up to the unifying
theme of the play as the folly of world-
liness.

In a study of The Annotations of
Ben Jonson's 'Masque of Queenes'
(RES) W. Todd Furniss shows how
these add detail to make up for the
reader's lack of a stage setting and an
authenticity which makes the theme
(that knowledge is virtue and ignor-
ance is sin) even more powerful. In

112

LATER ELIZABETHAN AND

two appendixes Furniss gives a list of
books used by Jonson in his annota-
tions, and further annotations upon
the annotations themselves. The same
writer has a note in MLN on Jonson,
Camden and the Black Prince's
Plumes. In Jonson's Prince Henries
Barriers (1610) Merlin refers to the
Black Prince's wearing plumes at
Crecy. There is no such detail in
Holinshed, from whom Jonson took
much of the historical material for the
Barriers, and Furniss suggests that he
got it from the second edition of Cam-
den's Remaines (1614); although this
appeared four years after the perform-
ance of the Barriers, it was two years
before the latter's first appearance in
print in the Jonson folio of 1616.

The description of Win-the-Fight
Littlewit in Bartholomew Fair (iv. 5.
21-27) is the subject of a note, Ben
Jonson, Markham and Shakespeare
by C. G. Thayer (NQ). He thinks that
the description was not only based on
the picture of a perfect horse in Mark-
ham's Cavelarice, but that Jonson had
also in mind that in Shakespeare's
Venus and Adonis (295-300), and that
he was here satirizing his friend's
stanzas.

R. G. Howarth has re-examined the
British Museum copy of Dekker's
pageant Troia-Noua Triumphans,
London Triumphing, written in 1612
for the installation as Lord Mayor of
Sir John Swynnerton, a Merchant
Taylor. On the title-page of this a
contemporary hand has written the
word 'Marchantailor' opposite Dek-
ker's name, and this has led to the
conclusion that Dekker was a member
of the Company, as John Webster was.
But Howarth points out that there is
no evidence in the company's records
that this was so, and he concludes that
the note on the pageant's title-page
was either a mistake or intended to
refer to Sir John Swynnerton.

Although not a strictly literary ar-

ticle, M. E. Lawlis's Another Look
at Simon Eyre's Will (NQ) must have
a certain appeal for the student of
Dekker. Lawlis examines the will at
Somerset House with a twofold pur-
pose; to correct John Stow's account
of it on a few points of fact, including
the date of Eyre's death, and to out-
line briefly the parts that Stow arbi-
trarily omitted.

In Marstoris Use of Seneca (NQ)
John Peter examines a Senecan bor-
rowing in Antonio and Mellida and
compares it with parallel versions by
Jasper Heywood and Leigh Hunt in
order to see what evidence it provides
of Marston's competence as a poet.
(The passage in question is from
Seneca's Thyestes, and begins 'Regem
non faciunt opes'.) He finds that Hey-
wood's is a straightforward, crude,
and remarkably literal version of the
original; that Hunt's resembles Hey-
wood's in being on the whole literal
and cast in a strictly metrical form,
but that it also shows some measure
of reshaping; that Marston's, in the
passage beginning 'Why man, I never
was a prince till now', has discarded
literalism, the poet having 'taken a
firm grasp of his original and thrown
it into a new shape, omitting and ex-
panding wherever he thought fit'. The
result transcends rather than translates
the Senecan passage.

'As a coiner of new words, unusual
and startling images, and as a master
of the telling or arresting phrase, Mar-
ston is second only to Shakespeare.
Next to Shakespeare, Marston is cited
by the OED oftener than any of the
other writers at work at the turn of
the sixteenth century for the first re-
corded use of specific words or for the
first use of long-established words in
a new sense.' So writes Gustav Cross
in the first of a series of articles, Some
Notes on the Vocabulary of John
Marston (NQ), intended to supple-
ment the OED recordings from Mar-

EARLY STUART DRAMA

113

stem's works both by adding new 'firsts'
and by antedating examples already
given. This first article deals with
thirty-three words.

Christian Kiefer discusses Music
and Marston's 'The Malcontent' (S in
Ph). Each of Marston's plays contains
noticeably frequent references to
music, but The Malcontent contains
more, together with actual perform-
ances, than any other. When inter-
preted with regard to contemporary
attitudes regarding music, Marston's
exploratory use of that art seems to
contribute more than is generally ac-
knowledged to the depth and coher-
ence of the play's satiric implications.

Mario Praz, in a letter to TLS, iden-
tifies the scene of the dead hand and
the mock corpses in Webster's The
Duchess of Malfi as deriving from the
similar scene in Herodotus's story of
the thieves of Rhampsinitus's treasure.

The significance of Brachiano's line,
'How long have I beheld the devill in
christall!', is discussed by G. P. V.
Akrigg in John Webster's 'Devil in
crystal' (NQ). In his edition of Web-
ster, Lucas interpreted this as a refer-
ence to Vittoria's beauty, and to the
prevalent idea that spirits could be en-
closed or revealed in crystals or beryls.
Akrigg suggests that the reference may
also be to a type of small shrine made
by cutting a suitably shaped rock
crystal into two layers longitudinally,
cutting out a cavity, and placing the
figure of a saint between them. The
reassembled crystal was mounted ver-
tically in a suitable frame of gold or
silver which covered the joins at the
sides but allowed the light to stream
through the crystal. If Webster had
such a device in mind the metaphor
gains in effect; not only is Brachiano
repeating the 'white devil' theme, but
he is saying that he has given to the
devil Vittoria the worship one gives to
a saint set in her crystal shrine.

R. G. Howarth writes on John Web-

B5641

ster's Burial (NQ\ and thinks that a
reference in the parish register of St.
James's, Clerkenwell, dated 3 March
1637, to the burial of a John Webster,
was to the dramatist.

In 'The Revenger's Tragedy': Jaco-
bean Dance of Death (MLQ) Samuel
Schoenbaum argues that the play fuses
elements of tragedy, melodrama, and
farce together to produce a macabre
unity whose effect is much like that of
a Totentanz. It contains the familiar
melodramatic revenge framework, far-
cical situations involving mechanical
puppets manipulated by the author,
and the bitter atmosphere of Jacobean
tragedy; normally a mixture of such
elements would be disastrous, but
here they produce a disturbing unity.
Schoenbaum points to a number of
parallels in theme and treatment be-
tween the play and what we know of
the Dance of Death.

Discussing The Ethical Design of
'The Revenger's Tragedy' (ELH)
Robert Ornstein argues that a disgust
with life or with humanity is not a
deeply ingrained characteristic of
Tourneur's mind and art. The play
expresses the intense, but only tem-
porary disillusion of a very orthodox
and very conservative mind. Its ethical
design, like that of Volpone, shows a
world apparently without moral law,
yet one in which a moral law operates
through the inevitable processes of
human psychology. Ornstein also
writes on 'The Atheist's Tragedy' and
Renaissance Naturalism (S in P/z), and
describes D'Amville as a curious com-
pound of atheist, materialist, sensual-
ist, nature worshipper, and politician.
There is little doubt, however, that he
was to Tourneur's audience a familiar
and immediately recognizable charac-
ter, the archetypal Renaissance athe-
ist synthesized from contemporary
opinions about, and refutations of,
atheism. This point of view is in oppo-
sition to previous ones which regarded

H

114

LATER ELIZABETHAN AND

D'Amville as a Machiavellian. He is a
farcical example of the naturalist who
turned his religion into an absurd anti-
religion; an atheist, and therefore in
Elizabethan eyes a scoundrel, and in
the end a coward.

G. H. Blayney, in Massinger's
Reference to the Calverley Story (NQ\
suggests that The Guardian (1655)
contains references to the crime com-
mitted by Walter Calverley in York-
shire in 1605, dramatic accounts of
which appeared in The Miseries of
Inforst Marriage (1607) and A York-
shire Tragedy (1608). Massinger's
play was written before 31 October
1633, and he may have had one of
these dramatic performances in mind
as he wrote on the theme of enforced
marriage, and of wardship and its
abuses; he seems to use details of lan-
guage and situation which now appear
separately in the other two plays. The
history of the Calverley story in the
dramatic accounts is far from clear,
and Blayney suggests that its possible
use by Massinger may help to throw
light on the problem.

The Careless Shepherdess has gener-
ally been ascribed to Thomas Goffe.
In an article on the authorship of the
play (PQ) Norbert F. O'Donnell thinks
this ascription unlikely. The title-page
of the published play, dated 1656,
nearly thirty years after Goffe's death,
says that it was written by 'T. G. Mr.
of Arts*, and Kirkman's play list (1661)
is the first of many to attribute it to
Goffe. It is also attributed to him in the
Stationers' Register entry of 22 Octo-
ber 1655. But the prologue, which can-
not be dated before 1638, nine years
after Goffe's death, speaks of the
author as if he were alive; both the
prologue and the Traeludium' suggest
that the author was, or aspired to be,
one of the gentlemen amateurs who
made their first appearance in the
theatre in the years after Henrietta
Maria's performance in Montagu's

Shepherd's Paradise (1633); one pas-
sage is strongly reminiscent of the
opening lines of Jonson's fragmentary
last masque, The Sad Shepherd, com-
posed in the years immediately before
his death in 1637; and two of the
songs in the play were claimed by
Shirley in the 1646 volume of his
poems. Possibly deception on the part
of the publishers has led to the ascrip-
tion of the play to Thomas Goffe, but
it is also possible that they were misled
by a name on the manuscript and con-
fused Thomas with the obscure Cava-
lier dramatist John Gough. Thomas
Goffe is discussed by O'Donnell in A
Lost Jacobean 'Phoenissae'? (MLN),
in which he mentions Jonson's remark
to Bishop Plume, *So Tom Goff brings
in Etiocles and Polynices disc n s of K.
Ric. 2 d ', and suggests that although
no known play by Goffe treats of the
story of the sons of Oedipus, there is
evidence that such a work existed and
may still exist. Goffe's surviving work
shows his knowledge of and interest
in Seneca's Phoenissae 9 there is evi-
dence that his published work does
not represent his entire output, and
Jonson may have seen the manuscript
of such a play on one of his visits to
Christ Church.

In MLR 1953 Jean Jacquot dis-
cussed the supposed atheistic views of
Raleigh in relation to those which
appear in a speech in The Tragicall
Raigne of Selimus (1594). He now dis-
cusses this play further in connexion
with La conception elisabpthaine de
Vathee (Stud ang), and remarks: Xe
monologue de Selimus, dans la mesure
ou il est destine a nous reveler les replis
ten6breux d'une ame vouee au crime,
ne s'ecarte en aucune f agon de 1'ortho-
doxie religieuse elisabethaine. II n'est
pas douteux, d'autre part, que son
auteur cherche a flatter le gout du
public moyen pour le blaspheme et
les horreurs.'

L. Schwartzstein, in The Text of

EARLY STUART DRAMA

115

'The Double Falsehood (NQ) argues
that certain passages in the play seem
to be deliberate imitations of lines
from Hamlet, Lucrece, and Romeo
and Juliet; he discounts the suggestion
of an earlier editor that the passages
in question might have been written
by Shakespeare.

In Some Notes on Thomas LuptorCs
'All For Money' (NQ) T. W. Craik
draws attention to an apparent bor-
rowing in the play from one of Lari-
mer's sermons of the story of a woman
charged with infanticide, illustrating
the corruption of justice in return for
bribes. He uses the fact that Lupton
had a sermon in mind while writing the
play as a starting-point from which to
examine his structural technique. This,
he thinks, is far from artless, and is in
fact *a very deliberately developed
argument, proceeding in a series of
debates and illustrated by scenes
showing the contemporary aspects of
the ageless sins which are attacked'.

An emendation in A Warning for
Fair Women is suggested by Arthur O.
Lewis, Jr. (NQ). In the passage

For by this light, my heart is not my own
But taken prisoner at this frolic feast,
Entangled in a net of golden wire
Which Love had slily laid in her fair looks

he proposes to read locks for looks.
He mentions in support of the altera-
tion other examples of the figure in
contemporary literature where hair
is clearly involved, and suggests that
looks is either a printer's error or per-
haps a variant spelling.

Dora Jean Ashe has an article on
The Non-Shakespearian Bad Quartos
as Provincial A cting Versions (Renais-
sance Papers, Univ. of South Carolina).
She discusses some of the now gener-
ally accepted fourteen bad non-Shake-
spearian quartos first with reference to
the indications which appear in them
of 'prompt-book intent' and next with
reference to signs of adaptation for
provincial performance. The only one

which provides clear evidence under
the first head is the manuscript of John
of Bordeaux ('a bad quarto that never
reached print'), and a survey of stage
directions in the remainder proves
inconclusive. There are clearer indica-
tions under the second head, compris-
ing cuts in text and staging require-
ments, additions of passages of 'rough
clownage', and simplified stage pro-
perties and staging arrangements.

The Red Bull Company and the
Importunate Widow by C. J. Sisson
(Sh S) examines depositions in the
Chancery suit of Worth v. Baskerville,
involving (in 1623) the Red Bull and
Queen Anne's Men, which contain
'much for the historian of the stage,
for the biographer of actors, and for
the student of human nature'. There is
evidence from, among others,. Christo-
pher Beeston, Richard Perkins, Tho-
mas Heywood, and Thomas Basse,
who obligingly give us information
about their ages and places of resi-
dence at this time. From such infor-
mation Sisson is able to make deduc-
tions about the beginnings of their
dramatic careers, while the signatures
appended to their evidence enable him
to make some cautious guesses on
matters of character. There is further
information on box-office receipts,
and the article is a good example of
how much of literary interest can still
be gleaned from non-literary docu-
ments of this period.

R. A. Foakes writes on The Player's
Passion. Some Notes on Elizabethan
Psychology and Acting (ES). The
variety and at times contradictory
nature of the views held by Eliza-
bethan psychologists make it difficult
to relate these views to the detailed
presentation of characterin the drama;
wherever possible the modern reader
prefers to interpret the characters in
the light of his own psychology, which
has in many respects become more
subtle. At the same time the peculiari-

116

ELIZABETHAN AND STUART DRAMA

ties which we attempt to explain away
as stage or literary conventions of the
time are all part of the reality of the
time and must be apprehended as such
Foakes instances love at first sight,
instantaneous change in a character
affected by love or jealousy, and so
on. Some of these we can accept, others
have to be explained to us. Foakes
thinks that the notion that Elizabethan
acting was largely a formal method
needs much closer examination, and
that we need to know a good deal
more about what the Elizabethans
themselves had to say about acting; he
indicates some of the sources of infor-
mation on this matter and the peculiar
drawbacks of each source.

The formalistic theory of Eliza-
bethan acting is also examined criti-
cally by Marvin Rosenberg in Eliza-
bethan Actors: Men or Marionettes?
(PMLA). He takes as a starting-point
a remark from B. L. Joseph's Eliza-
bethan Acting (1951) that 'given
actors of equal talent, each would be
able to perform the same speech in
exactly the same way, apart from dif-
ferences of voice and personal appear-
ance'. Rosenberg points out that this
is quite unlike anything known in the
later British theatre, and that to reach
such an unlikely conclusion too much
emphasis has been placed on the sup-
posed youth and lack of skill of the
so-called 'boy actors', on passages
from plays which are clearly attacking
second-rate actors and not describing
the general mode of acting, on the
interpretation of certain stage direc-
tions as 'patterned movement*, on the
assumption that a rigid time-limit for
the performance demanded clock-
work-like action, and, above all, on
the theory that a clear relationship
was felt to exist between actor and
orator. Rosenberg goes on to show
how in fact Shakespeare and the other

dramatists were dependent upon the
actor to give an identity to the com-
bination of emotions, desires, and
actions that made up a character in a
play. The great actor's special genius
for this task was his sensitivity to the
poetry's meaning and emotion as it
could be expressed through voice and
movement. This sensitivity is not
mechanical; it matures and is refined.'

On29 April 1648 George Jolly and his
itinerant acting company made a re-
quest to the city authorities of Cologne
for permission to play there, and Jolly
stated that he came there from Eng-
land via Bruges. In George Jolly at
Bruges 1648 (RES) H. R. Hoppe sug-
gests that Bruges was for various
reasons an unlikely place to stop in at
that time, but the reference is quite
specific. There is evidence that Jolly
headed a mixed troupe of Dutch and
English players at this time, such
mixed companies being known to have
toured the Low Countries styling them-
selves English or Dutch according to
the reception either designation might
win them. Hoppe reports the discovery
of a single reference in the Bruges
archives to a visit by an acting com-
pany, called a Dutch company, in
1648, which may refer to Jolly's visit.

In An Elizabethan Attitude towards
Peace and War (PQ) G. R. Waggoner
refers to the conception of a foreign
war as a useful device for maintaining
order within a kingdom which appears
in the words of the dying Henry IV to
Prince Hal (2 Henry IV, iv. v. 205-1 6)
and which does not appear in the cor-
responding passage in Holinshed. The
conception is not unique in Shake-
speare, and Waggoner cites other
examples in various kinds of Eliza-
bethan literature, including a number
in the plays Cambises, Lyly's Cam-
paspe, Chapman's Revenge of Bussy
D'Ambois, and others.

IX. LATER TUDOR PERIOD,
EXCLUDING DRAMA

By ARNOLD DAVENPORT

THE most extensive piece of work to
be noticed is Book III of C. S. Lewis's
volume in the Oxford History of Eng-
lish Literature (see Chapter VI, n. 1).
As most readers of YW will be aware,
this is in some respects a controversial
work; but in the main this account of
the poetry and prose between The
Shepheardes Calender and 1600 calls
for praise. In the first place it is re-
markable how many writers Lewis
contrives to say something useful or
interesting about, without descending
to list-making or giving the impression
of congestion. Next, one remarks on
the freshness and alertness he has re-
tained through the vast amount of
reading that has gone into the pre-
paration of this survey. And lastly, he
manages to be continuously readable.
About his critical judgements, praise
has to be qualified. When he is deal-
ing with writers he is in close sym-
pathy with, his appreciations are
admirable. The pages on Sidney are
excellent; those on The Fairie Queene
are warm with the writer's pleasure
and full of first-rate observations; it
is difficult to see how the section on
Hooker could be bettered in the space;
and there are similar good things
throughout the treatment of Nashe's
prose, for one, and a brilliant couple
of pages on Donne's Songs and Sonets
for another. But his judgements are
unorthodox on a number of subjects.
An historian has a right, and indeed a
duty, to make his own views clear, but
he has also, especially in a volume of an
'authoritative' history, the duty to make
clear the generally accepted critical
opinion too. It may be thought that
Lewis has not always or adequately

done this. His treatment of The Shep-
heardes Calender and Bacon's Essays
might be mentioned, even though one
personally agrees with him about the
Calender and goes part of the way
with him about the Essays. His work is
certainly stimulating and very often il-
luminating to the experienced student;
but it may prove rather dangerous to
the young students who are inevitably
going to consult this book for a state-
ment of the accepted view. It is likely
to be an influential book.

American scholars are at present
producing, evidently as text-books for
university courses, large and represen-
tative period anthologies. This is not
the place to discuss at length the differ-
ence in opinion between those who
think that the student's best introduc-
tion to a period of literature is a score
of complete works read as wholes, and
those who feel that a thousand-page
book of carefully selected passages
forms a better foundation. The defect
of the first plan is that it leaves huge
gaps; but they are so obvious that the
student cannot help being aware of
them. The second may lead him into
the dangerous illusion that this is all
he has to read, but on the other hand
the teacher can point immediately to
the text in front of the class instead of
hoping, sometimes too optimistically,
that the passages will be turned up
and read in context later. As a repre-
sentative anthology (excluding drama)
The Renaissance in England by H. E.
Rollins and H. Baker has very obvious
merits. 1 Containing a thousand double-

1 The Renaissance in England, by Hyder
E. Rollins and Herschel Baker. D. C. Heath,
pp.[xii]+1014. $7.50,

118 LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

columned pages, it has room for size-
able selections and is not limited to the
usual snippets and purple passages.
There are forty-six pages for Spenser
even though The Faerie Queene is not
represented. It deliberately includes
some writing that has little literary
merit on the grounds that it gives an
insight into the thought and precon-
ceptions of the period and so enables
the great work to be read with better
understanding. Thus there are gener-
ous sections on 'the historical setting'
and on 'critical theory'. Although the
volume covers the whole century, the
greater part comes, naturally and pro-
perly, from the final twenty years. The
texts are selected and edited with the
care to be expected from such eminent
scholars as the two editors. They pro-
vide introductory paragraphs to each
author represented. Even mature
scholars will find these not unprofit-
able. They also supply some of the
information the young student re-
quires in two ample glossaries, the
first of English words, the second of
proper names and foreign phrases.
The suggestions for further reading
are, sensibly, a highly selective guide
to modern editions and studies.

There have also appeared the first
two 2 of a series of paired volumes to
cover English prose and poetry from
the sixteenth to the nineteenth cen-
tury. They are under the general edi-
torship of K. J. Holzknecht who also
edits the volume of sixteenth-century
prose before us. About half of this
volume and nearly four-fifths of the
companion volume of poetry, edited
by N. E. McClure, belong to this chap-
ter of YW, but there is adequate re-
presentation of the poetry and prose
belonging to Chapter VI (see pp. 70-

2 Sixteenth Century English Prose, ed. by
Karl J. Holzknecht. pp, xx+616. Sixteenth
Century English Poetry, ed. by Norman E.
McClure. pp. xi+623. New York: Harper.
London : Hamish Hamilton. $6. 48s.

71, 74-75). The volumes offer the stu-
dent a sampling that is both wide and
generous. Only brief introductions are
given, but short and informative es-
says are provided for each author or
form represented, and these are more
than merely routine compilations.
There are short footnotes, chiefly gios-
sariaL The volumes, though expen-
sive, should make useful textbooks.

Much of E. M. W. Tillyard's book
on the English Epic is important to
students of the literature discussed in
this chapter and the next, and espe-
cially to readers of Spenser and of
Milton. The book must therefore be
mentioned here although it is also
noticed in Chapter I (see p. 17).

Discussing The Qualities of the
Renaissance Epic (South Atlantic
Quarterly) A. H. Gilbert suggests that
instead of taking our notions from
modern theorists we should go to the
Renaissance itself, and in particular
to Orlando Furioso to establish what
Renaissance Epic was like. He makes
some comment on Spenser and Milton.

Four of the essays in A. L. Rowse's
book 3 contain material relevant to this
chapter. One studies the portraits of
the character of the Queen in the
historians up to the beginning of this
century, and the conclusion that
emerges is that the most just assess-
ment of her comes pretty close to
what her younger contemporaries said
in her praise. An essay on 'Elizabethan
Christmas' collects some interesting
material. A third recounts a visit to
and sketches an impression of Spen-
ser's castle at Kilcolman. And, asking
whether our own is likely to be in a
significant sense *A New Elizabethan
Age', Rowse attempts to single out the
important elements in the society and
the psychology of the age that pro-
duced the great Elizabethan writers.
The biography of Archbishop Whit-

3 An Elizabethan Garland, by A. L.
Rowse. Macmillan. pp. viii+162. 15s.

LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 119

gift by P. M. Dawley 4 is a contribution
to history; but it is mentioned here
because of its bearing on the Puritan-
Anglican controversial writings and
because of Whitgift's own contribu-
tion to the development of Anglican
doctrine and feeling.

W. P. Holden's study 5 of anti-
Puritan satire during the period
covered by this chapter and the next
is a useful piece of work. It begins
with a general survey of the themes
of the conflict between Anglicans and
Puritans, and here Hooker's name and
thought figure prominently. During
this survey Holden indicates the early
tentative suggestions toward the com-
promise eventually arrived at after the
Restoration. Among these appear
Bacon's ideas about the greater im-
portance of peaceableness than sec-
tarian triumph. Before such ideas and
their attendant compromises could be
reached, the 'ardent reformer' had
developed into 'revolutionary and
regicide', and Anglican counter-attack
had kept pace in bitterness. The second
chapter deals, rather sketchily, with
the Marprelate and the anti-Martin
writings and more fully with the
attacks on Puritans in the satirists, in
the topical writers, in the anti-Puritan
ballads and miscellany poems of the
1640's, and so on. Holden assembles
a large representative collection of the
things the satirists upbraided the Puri-
tans for, and also comments on the
techniques of attack employed. There
is a special section on Spenser's atti-
tude to Puritanism. The third chapter
covers the Puritan attack on the theatre
and stage-plays and the retorts made
by the playwrights. Here Holden gives
us a long analytical account of the
stage Puritan in which the works of a

4 John Whitgift and the Reformation, by
Powel Mills Dawley. A. & C. Black, pp.
xiv+251. 15s.

s Anti-Puritan Satire 1572-1642, by Wil-
liam P. Holden. Yale U.P. O.U.P. pp.
xii+165. $3.75. 30s.

large number of dramatists are drawn
upon. A long section deals with the
Puritans in Shakespeare, Middleton,
and, especially, Jonson.

The first two chapters of The Eng-
lish Countrywoman are about our
periods, but the greater part of the
book deals with the eighteenth cen-
tury and it is therefore noticed in
Chapter XII, n. 55.

D. Davie's article on Sixteenth
Century Poetry and the Common
Reader (Ess Crit) provoked a discus-
sion by Davie, L B. Broadbent, and
F. W. Bateson in which points rele-
vant to this chapter were raised. (See
Chapter VI, p. 76.)

Some poems of our period are dis-
cussed by A. L. Bennett in the article
noticed above (Chapter VI, p. 77).

G. L. Mosse in The Assimilation of
Machiavelli in English Thought: the
Casuistry of William Perkins and Wil-
liam Ames (HZ/2) discusses the degree
to which these and other Puritan
divines accepted as legitimate, in cer-
tain circumstances, the use of Machia-
vellian 'policy'.

R. J. Schoek, writing (NQ) on The
Elizabethan Society of Antiquaries
and Men of Law, shows, by a list of
lawyers who were members, that they
played an important part in the
Society. A note signed 'M. B.' supple-
ments the list (NQ, p. 544).

H. Fisch writes on Alchemy and
English Literature (Proceedings of the
Leeds Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety, vii, Part ii) and points out that
alchemy is of serious importance in its
anti-Aristotelian influence and in its
affinities, like Baconism, to the 'new
philosophy', but it differs from Bacon's
science in that 'Matter and Spirit were
inextricably mixed' in alchemical
thinking. Fisch's point is another
aspect of the thesis of his paper noticed
in YW xxxiii. 159. He goes on to dis-
cuss briefly three kinds of alchemical
literature: the poetry of the alchemists

120 LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

themselves; satire on alchemy; and
non-satirical poetry utilizing the ideas
and concepts of alchemy (Donne is
noted as particularly rich in alchemi-
cal matter, and Vaughan is another
poet referred to). The last section
touches on alchemical ideas in modern
poetry.

Sarah Augusta Dickson is curator
of the Arents Tobacco Collection in
the New York Public Library and is
therefore in an excellent position to
treat of the literature of tobacco. Sec-
tions of her work appeared in 1953
and 1954 as articles in the New York
Public Library Bulletin, and it is now
published in a handsome volume. 6 Al-
though it is offered only as a discus-
sion of the controversy between those
who praised tobacco for its medicinal
virtues and those who damned it as a
vice, the book is really a general his-
tory of the introduction of tobacco
into Europe as this history is reflected
in the narrations of voyages, medical
books, and herbals of the sixteenth
century. The last third of the volume
collects and discusses a number of
references to smoking in Elizabethan
literature.

A. C. Southern has edited 7 the Eng-
lish translation (1627) by John Cuth-
bert Fursdon of the Latin Life of
Lady Magdalen Montague by Richard
Smith which was published in Rome
in 1609. It is a biography written for
edification and as a model for Catho-
lic English layfolk; but it also relates
anecdotes of some interest in them-
selves. The editor gives brief bio-
graphies of the author and the trans-
lator, and there are a few explanatory
notes.

F. B. Williams, Jr., writes a paper
on Renaissance Names in Masquerade

6 Panacea or Precious Bane, by Sarah
Augusta Dickson. The New York Public
Library, pp. xiv-f 227. $6.

7 An Elizabethan Recusant House, ed. by
A. C. Southern. Sands & Co. pp. xviii+88.

(PMLA) which must be mentioned in
this chapter or the next since many of
the disguised names dealt with belong
to persons of our periods.

A volume 8 collecting the papers
given and the discussions that followed
at a Colloque held in Paris during the
summer of 1953 is probably more use-
ful to students of Renaissance music,
but it contains several papers bearing
on our literature. Those that directly
deal with English poetry may be briefly
mentioned. Denis Stevens spoke about
'La Chanson anglaise avant Fecole
madrigaliste' and dealt with the song-
poems of the first half of the sixteenth
century. In the discussion Wilfred
Mellers pointed to the distinction be-
tween literary lyric and song lyric at
the end of the century (Donne: Cam-
pion) and suggested that, in spite of
Wyatt's frequent references to his lute,
some at least of his lyrics were not
conceived as song-texts. J. A. Westrup
spoke on 'L'Influence de la Musique
italienne sur le madrigal anglais'; J.
Jacquot on 'Lyrisme et sentiment
tragique dans les madrigaux d'Orlando
Gibbons'; Mellers on 'La Melancolie
au debut du xvn e siecle et le madrigal
anglais' in the discussion of this it
was agreed that 'melancholy' at that
period was not purely an English
phenomenon, and Jacquot suggested
that it arose, not from a tension be-
tween religious faith and increasing
doubt, but from a sense of humanity as
belonging simultaneously to an eternal
world of ideas and a terrestrial exis-
tence which was necessarily 'dece-
vante'. Thurston Dart spoke on the
'Role de la danse dans l'"ayre" an-
glais'.

In Dowland, Ornithoparcus, and
Musica Mundana (NQ) McD. Emslie
compares Andreas Ornithoparcus's
Latin discussion (c. 1516) of the music

8 Musique et Poesie au XVI & Siecle.
Editions du Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique. pp. 384,

LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 121

of the spheres, which takes the notion
to be fact, and Dowland's translation
(1609) which departs from the Latin
and accepts the music as true only as
a metaphor for the regularity of the
cosmos. The medieval ideas are no
longer sufficient in themselves: the
abstract concept of Proportion behind
the musica mundana idea is being ex-
plored.'

There are several oddities in the
edition of Morley's Canzonets for
Two Voices by J. E. Uhler. 9 The text
is a facsimile of the edition of 1595
and it is no doubt useful to the literary
student to have this authority for the
words of such lyrics as 'When loe, by
breake of morning . . .'; but musical
readers will find themselves in difficul-
ties. Morley published the canzonets
in two booklets, one for each voice.
They are here bound together: singers
and instrumentalists will have to buy
two copies or tear the book apart. And
they will also have to be musicologists
capable of interpreting Elizabethan
notation, for no transcript into modern
notation is provided. The 'cantus' vol-
ume is reproduced from a copy in the
Folger Library, the 'tenor' from one
in the Huntington; and they have been
photographed with different degrees
of reduction (or enlargement, no in-
formation is given) so that the 'tenor'
page is noticeably larger than the
'cantus', as can readily be seen by
comparing the first block initial in the
two facsimiles. The Introduction is
lithoprinted' and looks odd at first
sight; but one is growing used, if not
reconciled, to these kinds of printing.
Uhler discusses the nature of the can-
zonet, Morley's Italian originals and
how he deals with them, the musical
treatment of the words, and finally the
significance of the titles given to the
interspersed instrumental 'fantasias'.

9 Canzonets for Two Voices, by Thomas
Morley, ed. by John Earle Uhler. Louisiana
State UP. pp. 16+[56J. $2.50.

On this last, Uhler himself runs into
fantasies. And there is something very
odd about the title of the last fantasia.
It is *La Torello' in Morley's texts, and
'La Tortorella' in his table of contents;
but Uhler gives it without comment as
'La Torella* in his introduction and
translates it as 'The Little Heifer'. It
is strange to find no mention of Ober-
tello's authoritative study (see YW
xxx. 136) or R. A. Harman's edition
of Morley's Introduction (YW xxxiii.
158).

N. H. Graham contributes to NQ
notes on The Puttenham Family to
which the author of The Arte of Eng-
lish Poesie may have belonged.

A leading article in TLS (p. 281)
discusses the nature of Hooker's in-
fluence and suggests that it is his poli-
tical position that is of most interest
today.

Under the title William Warner of
Cambridge (NQ) D. W. Becker cites
a passage of Albion's England which
suggests that Warner was of Cam-
bridge University, not, as Anthony a
Wood says, of Oxford.

Dealing with The Authorship of
Four Poems in "The Garden of Good-
will' (NQ) by Thomas Deloney, S. M.
Pratt gives references for the identifi-
cation of one of them as Ralegh's and
two of them as Breton's, and adds his
own discovery that the fourth is
ascribed to Henry Chettle in England's
Helicon.

There is less work than usual to
report on Spenser. The Death of a
Queen: Spenser's Dido as Elizabeth
by P. E. McLane (HLQ) revives and
argues the proposition that the Dido
lamented in the November Eclogue of
The Shepheardes Calender is Queen
Elizabeth. This involves the assump-
tion that Spenser wrote or extensively
revised this eclogue after 6 October
1579, when Elizabeth convinced her
Privy Council that she was determined
to marry Alen^on. To the Leicester

122 LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

faction this French marriage seemed
the equivalent of the death of the real
Elizabeth, and they even feared that
it might result in the actual personal
death of the Queen and the destruc-
tion of the realm. Elizabeth-Dido is
thus mourned as having taken a deadly
decision. Spenser, in view of the
Queen's well-known enmity to those
who publicly opposed the match, had
to veil his meaning, but McLane thinks
the veil was thin enough for Spenser's
contemporaries to see through.

C. Huckabay and E. H. Emerson
interpret The Fable of the Oak and
the Briar (NQ) in literary terms: The
Shepheardes Calender is 'new poetry'
but Spenser never lost sight of tradi-
tion; 'the new poetry, like the Briar,
needs the protection of the old, as
represented by the Oak'. L. S. Fried-
land suggests that A Source of Spen-
ser's "The Oak and the Briar' (PQ)
is Gascoigne's Princely Pleasures at
Kenilworth Castle in which there is
precedent for the reversal of tradition
that Spenser makes when he charac-
terizes the Oak as mild and humble
and the Briar as contentious.

Anna Maria Crino continues her
work of making Spenser's poetry
available to Italian readers. In the
volume 10 she published this year she
prints (using the Variorum text) the
Amoretti and Epithalamion with her
translation into Italian on the facing,
pages. The Introduction is of course
written as a first introduction of the
poems to the Italian reader; but there
is matter which is also of interest to
the English student of Spenser, parti-
cularly in the discussion of the Italian
influence which is so strong in the
sonnets. From our point of view this
is also the main value of the notes, in
which, besides the information that

10 Amoretti and Epithalamion, by Ed-
mund Spenser, ed. and trans, by Anna Maria
Crino. Firenze: Editrice Universitaria.
pp. 195. L. 1,500.

one expects any editor to provide from
the work of earlier scholars, she quotes
many parallels from Italian poets, thus
enabling the student to form a clearer
impression of the quality and the
quantity of the Italian element in the
Amoretti.

Also intended for the educated
Italian reader is a translation by C.
Izzo of the First Book of The Faerie
Queene. 11 It is conducted on the lines
of Anna M. Crino's version of the
Calender from the same publisher:
English text facing a line-for-line
translation into Italian verse, un-
rhymed except for a final couplet to
the stanza. The Introduction briefly
narrates the life, surveys the works in
general in a few pages, discusses The
Faerie Queene at greater length, and
ends with a more detailed study of
Book I. The notes are highly selective,
chiefly from the Variorum, but inclu-
ding some from more recent articles
in periodicals.

Robert Hoopes in 'God Guide thee,
Guyon': Nature and Grace Recon-
ciled in 'The Faerie Queene', Book II
(RES) argues against what he takes to
be an implication of A. S. P. Wood-
house's theory (for which see Y W xxx.
144) that the two orders are not recon-
ciled in that Book. J. C. Maxwell in
Guyon, Phaedria, and the Palmer
(RES) suggests an improvement of E.
Sirluck's theory (for which see YW
xxxii. 163) about the interpretation of
the allegory of Book II.

In Spenser and Thomas Watson
(MLN) W. Ringler discusses the reci-
procal compliments of the two poets,
and points out that Amintas in F.Q.
in. vi. 45 has been incorrectly inter-
preted by modern editors, and is a
reference to Watson's Amyntas. Wat-
son complimented Spenser in his elegy
on the death of. Sir Francis Walsing-

11 La Reglna Delle Fate, ed. and trans, by
Carlo Izzo. Firenze: Sansoni. pp. Ixxxvii+
519. L. 1,500.

LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 123

ham (1590) and Spenser returned a
complimentary reference in The
Ruines of Time.

R. M. Durling challenges the com-
mon critical statement that Spenser
was merely imitating Tasso, and in a
paper called The Bower of Bliss and
Armidas Palace (Comp Lit) he ana-
lyses the difference between the two
passages under the headings: struc-
ture; treatment of sensuality and its
cure; art versus nature. Spenser re-
shuffles Tasso's material and adds
much of his own; he makes repre-
hensible and more evident the sexu-
ality of the bathing girls, and, unlike
Tasso, implies that such sensuality is
a perversion of the right kind of love,
and that once the soul is entangled by
it, divine grace is required to effect
liberation. The artefacts of the Bower
likewise are made by Spenser to mani-
fest corrupt application of technique
and art.

E. P. Kuhl argues in Hercules in
Spenser and Shakespeare (TLS) that
after 1596 Essex had taken Ralegh's
place as 'the hope of Imperial Britain'
and Drake's place as 'the embodiment
of the war spirit in England', and was
identified with Hercules by several
writers, including Spenser (F.g. v. i. 2).

W. F. McNeir discusses The Be-
haviour of Brigadore: 'The Faerie
Queene', v. UL 33-34 (NQ) as a com-
pound of suggestions derived from
Heliodorus, Ariosto, Montaigne, and
perhaps Sidney.

In Spenser and Deloney (NQ) W. B.
Bache compares the murder of Cole
in Deloney (Works, ed. Mann, pp.
254-60) and the attempted murder of
Britomartin.F.<2. v. vi. Since Deloney's
story is apparently based on a real and
sensational murder, it would appear
that Spenser too was making use of
a notorious topicality which, says
Bache, 'may help in some small way
to explain the immediacy that The
Faerie Queene had for the Elizabe-

thans and so often does not have for
us'.

John Buxton tells us that he was
led to write his book on Sidney 12 by
considering the present state of poetry.
The first chapter of Buxton's book is
devoted to making the point that the
Elizabethan poet conceived of him-
self as a skilled maker of a thing with
specifiable characteristics. Among
those influential in defining those
characteristics were Sidney and the
group he gathered round him. Bux-
ton's anxiety to stress the skilled con-
trol of the Elizabethan poet leads him
into dubious statements. Not every-
one will agree that sureness of taste
in elegy and poetical addresses is an
eminently Elizabethan quality. One
queries also the statement that 'to
strike Romantic attitudes in such ways
as publishing fragments or work in
progress would have been derided by
the company at Wilton'. The Arcadia
was left by Sidney and published by
Ms sister in the state of 'work in pro-
gress', and The Faerie Queene consists
of two major fragments of an un-
finished work. And finally, it may be
doubted whether Sidney and his sister
had quite such a commanding forma-
tive influence as Buxton implies. He
is on safer territory in the next two
chapters where he surveys Sidney's
travels and sojourns abroad; there is
a good deal of information in this
which will be new to many of us. In
Chapter IV Buxton sketches the
earlier connexions with literature of
the Earls of Pembroke; and then
brings in Dyer and Fulke Greville,
the two friends with whom 'Sidney
planned his campaign to make Eng-
lish poetry comparable with the poetry
of Renaissance Italy, or of the ancient
world'. Next come discussions of Sid-
ney and such problems as the relation-
is Sir Philip Sidney and the English
Renaissance, by John Buxton, Macmillan.
pp.xi+284. 18s.

124 LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

ship of song and lyric, classical metres
in English verse, and the proper dic-
tion and rhetoric of poetry. The main
subjects of the next chapter are the
composition of the Arcadia and the
Apologie, Sidney's relations with other
writers, native and foreign, his interest
in other arts and sciences, and his
death. Finally there is comment on
the influence of Sidney's example on
Mary Sidney and other members of
the nobility and their interest in and
encouragement of promising writers.
The main contribution to scholarship
of the book is probably the great
amount of information of Sidney's
contacts with men of literature and
learning throughout Europe. The index
is a helpful guide to this information.
Buxton's book is reviewed in a centre-
page article of TLS (p. 758).

P. J. McNiff prints for the first time
in full A Letter from Sir Philip Sidney
to Christopher Plantin (HLB). It is in
French, in a scribe's hand but signed
by Sidney, and is concerned with ar-
rangements about the copy of Orte-
lius's new Atlas which Sidney had
ordered.

To mark the fourth centenary of the
birth of Sir Philip Sidney, B. Bevan
wrote a short essay for the Contem-
porary Review. It contains nothing
new.

In Plato and Sidney (Comp Lit)
F. M. Krouse stresses the importance
of the imaginative myth in Plato's
practice and in his ethical theory, and
suggests that Plato could therefore be
interpreted as not radically opposed to
poetry since he accepted the emotion
aroused by imaginative creation as
philosophically and ethically useful.
(Some explaining away of the argu-
ment against poetry in the Republic, x,
seems required before one accepts this
view.) Applying this interpretation of
Plato's theory to Sidney's Apologie,
Krouse argues that Platonism, either
direct or through intermediary Pla-

tonists,is the basis of Sidney's account
of the nature and function of poetry.

Reporting the discovery by W.
Ringler of A New Manuscript of
Greville's 'Life of Sidney' (MLR) S.
Blaine Ewing discusses the new ver-
sion which differs notably from the
other two known manuscripts.

Cyril Falls discusses (Illustrated
London News, p. 54) Sir Philip Sidney
and his Age. The most interesting
point that Falls, an eminent military
historian, makes is that the action at
Zutphen was 4 a fine piece of bravado
almost childish by strict military stan-
dards'. In the same periodical (p. 96)
Falls also writes on Philip's younger
brother: Robert Sidney and his Corre-
spondence.

Virgil B. Heltzel has followed up
his discovery of Haly Heron (see YW
xxxiii. 160) by producing as number
1 1 of the series of Liverpool Reprints
an edition of Heron's The Kayes of
Counsaile. 13 There is no need to repeat
what was said here two years ago;
but it may be added that Heltzel is
now sure of what he only suspected
then, that Heron did not learn his
Euphuism from Lyly but from Lyly's
exemplar, George Pettie. The paral-
lels between Pettie and Heron given
in an appendix to this edition make
this pretty certain. There is also
some additional information about
Heron himself, and Heltzel supplies
some useful explanatory notes on the
text. In spite of microfilms there is
still much to be said for cheap re-
prints of rare texts, and even more
for competently edited and annotated
editions at a low price. Heltzel's edi-
tion of a book not without intrinsic
value and of considerable historical
and stylistic importance is welcome.

In Robert Parsons's 'Resolution'
and 'The Repentance of Robert

13 The Kayes of Counsaile, by Haly
Heron, ed. by Virgil B. Heltzel. Liverpool
U.P. pp.xviii+[4]+104. 6s.

LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 125

Greene* (NQ) E. H. Miller shows that
Greene quarried from Parsons for his
book, but thinks that the Jesuit's vivid
writing also compelled Greene to
serious soul-searching.

T. H. Jameson's book on Bacon 14
is confessedly partisan he describes
himself as 'a beleaguered follower of
Bacon' and it is at times rather bel-
ligerent in tone. The view he combats
is that Bacon distrusted the free play
of the imagination and that he was
one of the founders of the dissociation
of sensibility that, we have been told
so often, occurred in the seventeenth
century. Such a view, Jameson argues,
arises from misapprehension or dis-
tortion of Bacon's words, and, indeed,
partly from a mistranslation of a pas-
sage in th&DeAugmentis. That Bacon
dismisses poetry from his present con-
siderations, as the play of the imagi-
nation, is true enough: he is concerned
with the faculty of imagination, not
with its products. But that does not
mean, according to Jameson, that
Bacon dismissed poetry as relatively
worthless. That Bacon could find little
to say of the nature and function of
the imagination is a result of 'difficulty
inherent in the subject matter', not of
prejudice on his part. Elsewhere in
The Advancement Bacon interjects
spontaneous appreciation of poetry.
Thus, in the discussion of ethics, Bacon
remarks that the existence of poetry is
evidence of an inherent and invincible
desire in Man for a more ideal great-
ness, order, and variety in his world.
Again, he comments that poets are the
best practitioners of Cultura Animi:
knowledge of the motions of the mind
in action, which is knowledge useful
for 'medicining' the mind. Of this last
Jameson wonders that it has not taken
the fancy of moderns, 'so full a de-
scription is it of the dynamics of

14 Francis Bacon: Criticism and the
Modern World, by Thomas H. Jameson.
Frederick A. Praeger. pp. vi+72. $2.50.

human impulse, so thorough an ap-
preciation of the potency of letters in
reflecting the same'. The last chapter
of the book deals with some Baconian
scientific ideas and concepts which
Jameson presents as insufficiently un-
derstood and insufficiently appreciated
by hostile critics.

Jeanne Andrewes's paper (NQ, pp.
484, 530) on Bacon and the 'Dissocia-
tion of Sensibility' comes in appositely
at this point. She notes that Hazlitt
anticipated Eliot in using the concept,
and she then analyses some of Bacon's
imagery, concluding that it is 'complex
and also the product of a unified sen-
sibility'. The last sentences of the paper
may be quoted: 'The validity of this
concept of a "dissociation of sensi-
bility" may perhaps be contested, and
the difficulty of accounting for such a
figure as Bacon might lend strength to
the argument of its opponents. Never-
theless, it is interesting . . . that Bacon
has figured so prominently, and so
ambiguously, in the discussion/

M. E. Prior, dealing with Bacon's
Man of Science (JHI), collects Bacon's
scattered remarks on the qualities re-
quired in the new man of learning.
Accepting many of the epistemologi-
cal doubts of Scepticism, Bacon still
held that knowledge was, within limi-
tations, attainable. The individual
might be unable to reach complete
knowledge, but he could think of cer-
tainty as the limit towards which or-
ganized knowledge advanced, and
meanwhile find his satisfaction in his
own contribution to that advance, and
in the consciousness that he was help-
ing to ameliorate the worldly lot of
mankind. 'Compassion is the invariable
mark of Bacon's scientist/

R. Tarselius has continued his
studies of Bacon's prose (see YW
xxxiv. 29) and in All Colours -will
Agree in the Dark (Stud Neoph) re-
marks on the tone of incontroverti-
bility that Bacon's style often has.

126 LATER TUDOR PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

Grammatical sources of this tone, he
suggests, are Bacon's habit of using
the verb 'will' in the manner exempli-
fied in the phrase used as the title of
the paper, and by the trick of begin-
ning a sentence with an impressive
Tor . . .'.

Nashe has drawn little attention
this year. In The Relationship of
Robert Greene and Thomas Nashe
(PQ) E. H. Miller gives parallel
passages in support of his conjecture
that Nashe collaborated with Greene
in The Defence of Cony-Catching
and instigated the famous attack on
the Harveys in A Quip for an Upstart
Courtier.

Miller has also been studying
Samuel Daniel's Revisions in 'Delia'
(JEPG) and he concludes that they
are essentially minor, that many were
prompted by the desire to excise
feminine rhymes, and that the effect
of the revisions was *a diminution
of youthful romantic fervour and
a pallid conventionalization of his
lines'.

Under the titled Mirror for Scholars
(UTQ) M. MacLure assembles the
biographical facts about Henry Cuffe,
sometime Professor of Greek in the
University of Oxford, secretary to
Robert, second Earl of Essex, and
author of The Differences of the Ages
of Mans Life, 1607, which MacLure
also discusses.

K. Muir reports Mollie Herbert-
Dell's discovery of a peculiarity in
The Order of Constable's Sonnets
(NQ) in the surviving manuscript and
in the printed edition of Diana, 1592.
It suggests, he conjectures, that both
descend from a manuscript in two
columns. One copyist read the columns
vertically, copying all sonnets in
column a before going on to b, and
the other copyist read horizontally:
al,M,a2, Z>2. ...

F. G. Williams, Jr., writes on the
life of Robert Nicholson, a Minor

Maecenas (NQ), the chief of whose
proteges was Joshua Sylvester.

M. W. Askew discusses (Explicator)
some subtleties of implication in
Ralegh s 'The Pilgrimage'.

J. C. Maxwell disagrees (NQ) with
an editorial note by the present writer
on Hall: 'Virgidemiae' IV. i. 171-2,
and maintains that the Flaccus in
question was not Valerius but Persius.
Maxwell is right and the note should
be corrected accordingly.

Writing on "Certain Satires' and the
Hall-Marston Quarrel (NQ) A. Caputi
suggests an emendation in Marston's
Certain Satires, ii. 36; but it is neither
necessary nor probable.

C. G. Bell in Edward Fairfax Base
Son and Lost Eclogues (NQ) brings
additional evidence of the bastardy,
relates the history of the manuscript
of the Eclogues to 1789, and offers
such clues as exist about their further
destiny to any reader who may care
to pursue the search. He also writes
on Fairfax's Tasso (Comp Lit) and
thinks it important for 'its innate
beauty and as a document of cultural
change'. Among the topics of the
essay are Fairfax's mode of transla-
tion, his style, a comparison of his
and Richard Carew's version, and the
modifications Fairfax made by add-
ing to, or altering the colouring of, his
original.

H. Swanston prints under the title
An Elizabethan Christmas (DUJ)
from the manuscript commonplace-
book of Peter Mowle a poem by him
on an earthquake which occurred on
24 December 1601. The poem, in
thirteen six-line stanzas, scorns the
'pryinge searchers into things' who
would explain such occurrences by
'nat'ral reasons arguments'. Mowle
thinks such things are warning signs
from God, probably of the Second
Coming and the end of the world. The
manuscript is preserved in Oscott Col-
lege Library.

X. EARLIER STUART AND THE COMMON-
WEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA

By ARNOLD DAVENPORT

THE book by L. L. Martz on the
Poetry of Meditation 1 advances a
theory which, if it is accepted, makes
important differences to our under-
standing of the Metaphysicals. It also
discusses many interesting problems.
The thesis is that the Metaphysical
religious poets were greatly and fun-
damentally influenced by the tech-
niques of religious meditation de-
veloped in the counter-Reformation.
These techniques were intended not
only for contemplatives but for lay
persons. The main influence was that
of Loyola's Spiritual Exercises which
followed this pattern, based on the
traditional division of the soul into
Memory, Understanding, and Will:
the meditator first 'composed' the
scene, incident, or object to be medi-
tated on, calling up vivid sense im-
pressions of the minutest details; he
then exercised his understanding in
an effort to comprehend the real, often
paradoxical, meanings of the subject
(for instance, the Creator scourged by
the hands he had created); and finally
the emotions roused by these means
-were focused by a conscious act of
will and given expression in an imagi-
nary colloquy with God, or with some
object in the scene contemplated. Con-
currently, intense self-examination and
close analysis of what had been felt
and experienced was to be undertaken;
and the life of the senses was habitu-
ally to be attended to and its expe-
riences 'applied' to the mysteries of
religion a deliberate attempt to fuse

1 The Poetry of Meditation, by Louis L.
Martz. Yale U.P. and O.U.P. pp.xvii+375.
$5. 40*.

intellect and the senses. A variant
technique, associated particularly with
St Francois de Sales, minimized the
arduous elaborations of Jesuit intel-
lectuality and relied rather on the
spontaneous movements of feeling in
meditation. The characteristics of such
meditative techniques are, Martz
rightly points out, exactly those of
'metaphysical* poetry, which he there-
fore proposes to call 'the poetry of
meditation'. He finds the pattern of
composition, analysis, and affective
colloquy in a large number of reli-
gious poems of the period and regards
it as the direct result of the techniques
of meditation. Although he several
times notes that there were other ele-
ments in Metaphysicality and that
individual poets use the patterns and
techniques in their own personal way,
he leaves the impression that medita-
tion is the general and sufficient ex-
planation of the Metaphysical poets.
Other interesting things in this first
part of the book include a long dis-
cussion of Richard Baxter's advocacy
of meditation by Puritans; accounts
of methods of meditation with the
help of rosaries; and suggestions about
the influence of these methods on such
works as Donne's *La Corona', on
which Martz is illuminating. In the
second part he turns to individual
poets. The essay on Robert Southwell
argues that he is the forerunner of the
religious poets of the following cen-
tury in five respects. 'First, Ms poeti-
cal meditations on the lives of Christ
and Mary . . . ; second, his campaign,
by precept and example, to translate
the devices of profane poetry into the

128

EARLIER STUART AND THE

service of religious devotion; third
(largely a consequence, I think, of the
second), the kinship between his poetry
and George Herbert's; fourth, his
importance in introducing to England
the continental "literature of tears"
especially of "Mary Magdalen's tears" ;
and finally, the tendency towards self-
analysis in his poetry. . . .' The chap-
ter on Donne (parts of this first ap-
peared in ELH, 1947) consists of a
detailed analysis of the structure of
the two Anniversaries and a commen-
tary on them. Martz holds that the
Second Anniversary, 'despite some
flaws, is as a whole one of the great
religious poems of the seventeenth
century' another item for the varied
collection of recent judgements of this
poem (see YW xxxiii. 166, xxxiv. 183).
An appendix gives reasons for think-
ing that both the Anniversaries were
written in the year 1611. They are,
Martz thinks, the 'crisis and culmina-
tion' of a period of 'most fervent and
painful self-analysis, directed toward
the problem of his vocation' in which
he utilized 'all the modes of medita-
tion and self -analysis that he knew, in
an effort to make the crucial decision
of his life'. Donne exemplifies the
violence of the Jesuit technique;
Herbert the gentler and smoother
emotional discipline of St. Frangois
de Sales whose teachings had, together
with Southwell's poetic example, more
important influence on Herbert than
Donne had. Martz is here engaged, as
several writers have been recently, in
attacking the traditional view that
Herbert is a smaller second edition of
Donne, with expurgations. In particu-
lar, Martz points to the significance
for Herbert's poetry of St. Fran$ois's
special 'practice of the presence of
God' that is, the habitual lively sense
of God actually present 'in his sacred
humanitie* as an intimate friend close
by. Herbert is described as a poet de-
veloping 'away from an early enthu-

siasm for Donne's manner towards a
style much closer to Sidney's', and the
argument is supported by a discussion
of Herbert's revisions and by a careful
comparison of mature Herbert with
Sidney in sober-minded mood. A fur-
ther chapter on Herbert argues that
the order of the poems in The Temple
is significant, and that the book was
designed by Herbert as an artistic
unity. The last chapter in the volume
deals with Hopkins and Yeats. In a
substantial appendix Martz discusses
the relationship between Mauburnus's
Rosetum, Joseph Hall's Art of Divine
Meditation, and Crashaw's hymn to
the Name of Jesus.

This seems the appropriate place, in
spite of chronology, to notice Ruth
Wallerstein's study of Sir John Beau-
monfs 'Crowne of Thames' (JEGP).
The poem has not been printed and
exists in a manuscript copy in the
British Museum. It is 'a complex
meditation, in a symbolic mode, upon
Christ as God, man, and saviour'. The
paper discusses the content and the
ideas of the poem in some detail, in-
cludes lengthy quotations, and insti-
tutes comparisons with Spenser and,
especially, with Donne.

To put it brutally, the thesis of
M. M. Ross's book 2 on seventeenth-
century religious poetry is that 'the
almost simultaneous flowering and
withering of Christian sensibility in
poetry' in England is the corollary of
the Anglican rejection of the Dogma
of Transubstantiation. 'The dogmatic
symbolism of the traditional Euchar-
istic rite had nourished the analogical
mode of poetic symbol, indeed had
effected imaginatively a poetic know-
ledge of the participation (each in the
other) of the natural, the historical,
and the divine orders.' As a result of
the rejection of this dogma, the course

2 Poetry and Dogma, by Malcolm Mac-
kenzie Ross. Rutgers U.P. pp. xiii+256.

$5.

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 129

of English poetry is divided. 'One
direction will be that of the utterly
secular, under the sign of rationalism
and materialism. The other will be
that of the romantic idealisms and
"psychologisms", the pseudo-sacred
as against the real profane.' These
quotations indicate the platform of
the book and illustrate its style. Ross
frequently expresses himself in hazy
metaphors and sometimes proceeds
to use one of his metaphors as a tech-
nical term as though it had been ade-
quately defined. 'Firmament* is a case
in point. But though it is in some ways
an exasperating book it contains a
good deal of very interesting material.
The first two chapters explain the sig-
nificance of the doctrine of the Real
Presence by Transubstantiation and
the third argues that Cranmer institu-
ted *a denial of the whole Eucharistic
grip on reality and therefore a repu-
diation of the sanctification of natural
things, therefore, too, an assault on
the analogical validity of the poetic
symbol*. Ross then considers the effect
of this on some Elizabethan poets.
Herbert is described as accepting
Hooker's position; but since the facts
of the relationship of Church and
State no longer squared with Hooker's
theory, Herbert was subjected to a
tension which he sought to resolve in
'a deepening sense of intimacy with
God, which almost transcends the
church as an institution . . . and ap-
proaches mystical communion'. Had
Herbert lived into the Civil War this
precarious poise would have been
destroyed. Tn the men who follow
and owe most to Herbert's influence,
the spell is broken and the inner syn-
thesis dissolves.' For Crashaw the
temptation to revert to medieval ideals
'is consummated in a highly romantic
Roman Catholicism. Vaughan . . .
turns away from the Renaissance tra-
dition and carries forward Herbert's
incipient mysticism.' Ross then deals

B5641

with a number of minor poets and
finally arrives at Milton. The first of
the chapters on him deals with the
'Protestant aesthetic' in the early
poems, and the second considers the
problem of the reader's belief in the
doctrine of Paradise Lost. The con-
clusion appears to be that Milton must
not be thought of as a Christian at all;
but Ross's own words must be quoted.
The dogmatic symbol moves to the
periphery of Milton's firmament.
Paradise Lost is anthropocentric, not
Christocentric. The artist himself is
at the centre of the new firmament of
poetry, Milton's firmament. He is free
to use dogma, to use typology, as he
is free to use whatever concept or
image that can be made to serve his
vision. It is but a step, albeit a step
down, to the clever machinery of The
Rape of the Lock." It is a conclusion
that contrasts interestingly with Sister
Miriam Joseph's (see n. 20).

In Universal Analogy and the Cul-
ture of the Renaissance (JHI) J. A.
Mazzeo makes no direct reference to
English literature but takes further
some investigations reported in his
earlier essay (see YW xxxiv. 186).

A. I. T. Higgins is evidently a young
scholar and her book 3 on the narrative
poems in Saintsbury's Caroline Poets
is an academic dissertation requiring
only brief notice. It was published in
1953 but did not arrive in time to be
included last year. It collects some of
the relevant facts (mostly from secon-
dary sources) and conscientiously dis-
cusses the kind and the value of the
poems. A serious defect is that it
ignores practically all the work done
in the last forty years.

The Theme of Solitude and Retire-
ment in Seventeenth Century Litera-
ture (tud ang) by H. G. Wright ranges
over the whole century to show the

3 Secular Heroic Poetry of the Caroline
Period, by Alison I. T. Higgins. Bern : A.
Francke. pp. 136. Sw. Fr. 10.

130

EARLIER STUART AND THE

widespread popularity of the theme;
but there are some pages on two poets
who belong to this chapter, Benlowes
and Vaughan.

C. C. Mish in 'Reynard the Fox' in
the Seventeenth Century (HLQ) dis-
cusses the version of the story pub-
lished with this title in 1620, and also
deals with its many successors.

K. B. Harder discusses Sir Thomas
Urquharfs Definition of Wit (NQ)
and suggests that the new concept of
'wit' commonly dated to the Restora-
tion (Johnson on Cowley) was already
developed by 1640.

The following notices on Donne are
arranged: Life and reputation, poetry,
prose. In his short essay on The Very
Reverend Doctor Donne (Kenyan
Review) Austin Warren makes two
main points which are not new: that
the libertine youth of Jack Donne is
probably a legend (see YW xxxi. 164)
and that he was not strictly a high
Anglican but rather a catholic who
came close to the doctrine cuius regio
eius rellgio (cf . Helen Gardner, Divine
Poems, p. 121). A third point seems
new: the juxtaposition of learned
latinized diction and racy vernacular
in the great Jacobean style bears wit-
ness to 'English literature as at once
regional (or national, if you like) and
European', as it were Anglican within
Catholicism.

In The Dean and the Yeoman (NQ)
B. W. Whitlock quotes evidence of a
less likeable side of Donne's charac-
ter. He apparently enforced the letter
of the law rigorously enough to harry
a yeoman who did not kneel at the
times when kneeling was enjoined on
the congregation. The vergers were
thrice sent with warnings, and al-
though Christopher Ruddy, the yeo-
man, then left the church, Donne
seems to have sent officers after him
and he was finally committed to New-
gate. Whitlock also collects biographi-
cal details of John Syminges (NQ, pp.

421, 465) who was Donne's first step-
father.

D. J. Drinkwater adds More Refer-
ences to John Donne (NQ) during the
Commonwealth. He finds Donne's in-
fluence rather extensive than deep,
and encouraging the bizarre rather
than the intellectual and creative use
of the conceit. F. Kermode notes (NQ)
some Donne Allusions in Howell's
Familiar Letters.

K. W. Gransden's study 4 of Donne
is for the general reader and does not
profess to offer reassessment of the
poet, but only a 'companion' to the
works represented in the Nonesuch
edition. The Latin works are not con-
sidered; and the prose letters are barely
mentioned. The book is pleasantly
written, and some things that may
seem pretty obvious to the mature
student of Donne need saying to the
reader Gransden has in mind. The
life is recounted briefly but with
the important points well made. In the
chapters on the poems he says the
expected things but says them well,
and eccentricities of interpretation, of
which there are often too many in
Donne criticism, are usually avoided.

Two-thirds of Clay Hunt's book on
Donne 5 is devoted to essays of analy-
sis and exegesis of the following
poems: The Indifferent', Elegy xix,
'Love's Alchemy', The Blossom', The
Good-Morrow', The Canonization',
'Hymn to God, my God, in My
Sickness'. Beyond this enumeration a
brief notice cannot well go, since such
detailed and elaborate discussions can-
not be summarized and would require
almost their own length to discuss.
One can, however, say that one mostly
agrees with Hunt's interpretation; and
his sanity of response and his under-
standing of the period command re-

4 John Donne, by K. W. Gransden.
Longmans, pp. x+197. IQs. 6d.

5 Donne's Poetry, by Clay Hunt. Yale
U.P. and O.U.P. pp. xiv+256. $3.75. 30s.

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 131

spect where one hesitates to agree.
The last third of the book consists of
'Some Conclusions' in which there are
useful attacks on current cliches of
criticism. The suggestion that the per-
sonality displayed and exploited in
the early poems is a Mask (in Yeats's
sense of the term) is an idea that co-
heres very well with the point that
Adams makes in the article noticed
below. There are many other inter-
esting things in this work, and it is
pleasant to be able to say that it is
readably and clearly written.

It is doubtful if there is much to be
said for writing yet another general
essay on Donne, and as Margaret
Willy admits, she is, in her essay on The
Poetry of Donne (ES), 're-exploring'
country already very familiar. All the
regular key-phrases of criticism and
most of the usual quotations from
Donne duly appear in the first half of
the essay, and there is no need to
comment further except to query the
assertion that Tor Godsake hold your
tongue and let me love' is an exhorta-
tion to a garrulous lady.

A companion piece to this essay
is R. M. Adams's Donne and Eliot
(Kenyan Review). Adams scents
something suspicious in the claim of
contemporary poets to be heirs of the
tradition of Donne and something
ambiguous in that tiresome phrase
'dissociation of sensibility': 'the rather
complex fact seems to be that Donne
did suffer from "dissociation of sen-
sibility", exploited the fact energeti-
cally, and felt rather strongly that he
shouldn't being in all respects like
Eliot' Margaret Willy sees Thomas's
The force that through the green fuse
drives the flower* as a Donnean 'ap-
prehension of a single, driving power
which animates all creation'; for
Adams the same poem is a modern
equivalent of Donne's compasses,
which is 'an image that tells us more
about Donne than about either love

or compasses. ... I do not', he con-
tinues, 'see any way to account for
the deliberate incongruities of the
Valediction Forbidding Mourning . . .
except on the grounds that Donne
wanted to display something about
his own temperament.' Adams also
comments on the conflict of science
and religion in Donne and makes
the suggestive comparison between
Donne's dealings with the new science
and Eliot's dealings with The Golden
Bough and with Jessie Weston's book.
L. L. Miller (ibid., p. 505) takes Adams
to task for his remarks.

On the first page of her booklet 6
Irene Simon appears to agree with
Adams: 'this theory of sensuous
thought versus dissociation of sensi-
bility really tells us more about Eliot
than about Donne'. The following
pages show that she has read what has
been written about Donne by recent
critics, tried all things, and held fast
to those that are good. Indeed her
closely packed discussion can be re-
garded as a summary of the sound
points that the critics have made, and
her comments on their aberrations are
clear, succinct, and pertinent. Her own
critical observations are free from pre-
tentious jargon and they are usually
persuasive. Sometimes one disagrees
with her in interpretation. For in-
stance, her objection to the last line
of The Crosse' seems to miss the point
Donne is making. But time and again
she shows an admirable balance of
sensibility and common sense enlight-
ened by knowledge of the period.

R, L. Sharp in Donne's 'Good-
Morrow' and Cordiform Maps
(MLN) brings a clearer meaning to
lines 15-16 of the poem. Mercator
maps the world in two hemispheres,
each in a projection that produces a
conventional heart-shape: each heart

6 Some Problems of Donne Criticism, by
Irene Simon. Brussels: Didier. pp. 76.
Paper backed, stapled.

132

EARLIER STUART AND THE

maps a hemisphere and two hearts
make a world.

D. C. Allen suggests a possible
analogue of Donne's "The Will'
(MLN) in Soncinus's Grunii Coro-
coctae porcelli testamentum (1505).
Eleanor McCann makes (HLQ) a
comparison of Donne and Saint
Teresa on the Ecstasy, and, without
positively affirming, suggests that the
poet may have known the saint's
accounts and utilized them for his
own purposes. P. C. Levenson con-
tinues the discussion (see YW xxxiv.
189) of the imagery of Donne's 'Holy
Sonnets', xiv (Explicator), amending
his own interpretation and defending
it against Herman's criticism. The
Note on Donne's 'Crosse' (RES) by
J. A. W. Bennett observes that collec-
tions of things like a cross (swimmers,
flying bird, mast and yards, &c.) were
made by several early Christian writers ;
and Donne probably derived his col-
lection from Lipsius's De Cruce, I. ix.
J, B. Leishman's long review (RES,
pp. 74 ff .) of Helen Gardner's edition
of Donne's Divine Poems contains
some conjectural emendations and
some important new material.

Geoffrey Keynes reports (TLS,
p. 351) on a manuscript now in his
possession which contains copies of
eight sermons by Donne. The manu-
script has been studied by Evelyn
Simpson and used for vol. ii of the
Potter-Simpson edition of the Ser-
mons. The review of this edition in
the Kenyon Review (pp. 292-9) by
C. M. Coffin is really an independent
essay on Donne as a preacher. The
main point is that Donne did not have
to develop technically as a preacher.
If he did develop it was in learning
what to preach, not how to preach: to
preach with more emphasis on God
as Immanent rather than as Transcen-
dent.

In a short essay on Robert Burton's
'Satyricall Preface' (MLQ) W. R.

Mueller discusses the purpose of
Democritus Junior's epistle to the
reader. It was to justify the elaborate
'anatomy' of the disease by showing
melancholy madness to be well-nigh
universal, and to vent Burton's own
annoyance with the critics of the
earlier editions. The essay next dis-
cusses Burton's attitude to human
beings. His laughter at mankind had
pity in it, Mueller thinks. Lastly there
is some account of the nature and
technique of the satire on mankind
in the preface.

Although the two poems have long
been recognized as belonging to the
same tradition the tradition of
Christis Kirk on the Grene A. H.
McLaine argues (NQ) that we should
recognize Drummond of Hawthorn-
den's 'Polemo-Middinia* as a Source
for 'The Blythesome Bridal'.

F. J. Warnke discusses Two Pre-
viously Unnoted MSS. of Poems by
Lord Herbert of Cherbury (NQ). They
are an autograph (preserved in Powis
Castle) of The Idea' which contains
some important variants from the
final text, and a copy (in the British
Museum) of Inconstancy'.

The Notes on Some Works attri-
buted to George Wither (RES) by
Lyle H. Kendall, Jr., consider ten
works and conclude that only two,
Prosopopoeia Britannica, 1648, and
Amygdala Britannica, 1647, are cer-
tainly by Wither. J. M. French argues
strongly (Two Notes on Milton and
Wither, NQ) against Kendall's sugges-
tion (see YW xxxiv. 192, 204) that
Wither wrote The Great Assizes, 1654,
and that the J. M. in Wither's Se
Defendendo, 1643, was John Milton.

R. F. Gleckner analyses (Explica-
tor) King's 'The Exequy'.

Besides the extensive discussion of
George Herbert in the general books
discussed at the beginning of this chap-
ter there are two books devoted to
him. The first, by Margaret Bottrall, is

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 133

unpretentious and is designed for the
general reader. 7 In a pleasant style she
tells the life-story, and is concerned,
not to add anything new to the bio-
graphy, but to present a picture of the
man's character and spirit. It will be
seen that she is closer to Martz than
to Ross, and she independently reaches
Martz's conclusion that the influence
of Donne on Herbert has been exag-
gerated. Herbert's peculiarities as a
poet were not, she thinks, the result of
his reading his older friend's poetry;
they sprang rather from the paradoxi-
cal nature of the Christian faith itself.
If a poetic lineage for him is to be
sought, it will more likely be found in
Sidney. Her book was dealt with in a
front-page article of TLS (p. 241).

The second book on Herbert, by
J. H. Summers, is more substantial. 8
It begins with the downright sentence:
'George Herbert is one of the best
English lyric poets', and the first chap-
ter is a history of the appreciation of
his poetry, which leads to the conclu-
sion that the aesthetic value of the
poems cannot be appreciated without
an understanding of the religious
thought and experience from which
they grew. Summers therefore com-
pletes Part One of his book with chap-
ters on Herbert's life and his religious
thought. He agrees with Margaret
Bottrall that 'Herbert was in no sense
a mystic' if by mystic is understood a
contemplative achieving union with
God. As a devout Christian Herbert
valued the sense of the presence of
God, but he expected union only after
death. It is not possible in a sentence
or two to summarize the next two
chapters on The Conception of Form*
and The Proper Language' of poetry;
but the chapter called The Poem as

7 George Herbert, by Margaret Bottrall.
John Murray, pp. vii+154. 155.

8 George Herbert, His Religion and Art,
by Joseph H. Summers, Chatto & Windus.
pp. 247. 2ls.

Hieroglyph' calls for a few words.
Summers uses 'Hieroglyph' as a syno-
nym of Emblem, and prefers it, appa-
rently, because Emblem might suggest
a certain obviousness, as in the Em-
blem books, whereas Herbert's use of
Emblem-images is more subtle. An
incidental comment here harmonizes
with Ross's view: 'Herbert nearly al-
ways presents the institutional as a
hieroglyph of the personal rather than

vice versa ' The poems discussed as

hieroglyphs are The Church-floore',
The Bunch of Grapes', 'Church-
Monuments', 'Aaron', and the two
pattern-poems, The Altar' and 'Easter
Wings'. Summers next deals with Her-
bert's subtlety of rhythm that gives a
distinctive character to each poem:
'Every poem requires a new beginning,
a new form, a new rhythm.' Hence his
great variety of stanza-forms, and the
fact that 'the fictional speakers of his
poems have many voices'. The next
two chapters deal with the suitability
of the poems for singing, with Her-
bert's use of music generally, and with
his use of allegory and his handling of
the sonnet. In a 'Conclusion* Summers
writes: 'With Herbert, in contrast with
Donne, our final impression is not of
the brilliant surfaces, of the delightful
logical gymnastics, or of a powerful
personality engaged in dramatizing its
conflicts and its vitality; it is, rather, an
impression of astonishing simplicity'
which is the 'simplicity of the spirit;
it is the reverse of naivete' and is a
product of deep self-knowledge.

M. F. Moloney's Suggested Gloss
for Herbert's 'Box where sweets . . .'
(NQ) is 'musical box'. The gloss has
the advantage that it makes the imagery
of the stanza as closely integrated as it
is in the other stanzas. But, one objects,
'compacted' fits well if the sweets are
perfumes (as Hutchinson glosses) but
is strained if they are sweet music.

G. P. V. Akrigg suggests that George
Herbert's 'Caller' (NQ) should be so

134

EARLIER STUART AND THE

entitled, and that the title The Collar'
is a misprint. The suggestion has al-
ready been made in 1951 by J. M.
Bickman (YW xxxii. 180).

McD. Emslie (Explicator) brings a
satisfactory common sense to the ex-
plication of Herbert's 'Jordan' /; and
going through the poem line by line he
elicits the meaning without recourse
to the far-fetched.

R. A. Blanchard, in his essay on
Thomas Carew and the Cavalier Poets
(Transactions of Wisconsin Academy,
xliii), treats the poet as mainly derived
from Donne, but modified by Jonson;
and distinguishable from the other in-
heritors of those traditions by a more
consistent exploitation of 'careful
working out of single metaphors, . . .
logical persuasiveness of argument'
and 'combined variety and smooth-
ness of rhythm'.

Elsie Duncan-Jones suggests a cor-
rection to Rhodes Dunlap's note on
line 18 of Carew's 'Upon the Kings
Sicknesse* (Explicator) and points out
that the reference is not to the King,
but to the 'sober, strong and young'
among his subjects who are distressed
by his illness.

E. H. Miller demonstrates Samuel
Rid's Borrowings from Robert Greene
(NQ) in Martin Mark-all, 1610 (for-
merly attributed to, and printed in
the works of, Samuel Rowlands). The
paper ends with a needful caution
against supposing that Elizabethan
tracts on social abuses and criminal
low life are drawn from the author's
first-hand experience. 'Many of the
so-called exposes are simply exploita-
tions of earlier authors.'

Number 103 of the second series of
the Hakluyt Society, issued for 1951,
has now appeared and been received.
It is an edition by L. B. Wright and
V. Freund of William Strachey's His-
torie of Travell into Virginia Britania,
1612. 9 It is transcribed from a manu-
9 The Historic of Travell into Virginia

script in Princeton University Library
and therefore supplements the early
Hakluyt Society edition by R. H.
Major, 1849, which was edited from
a manuscript in the British Museum.
A third manuscript is preserved in the
Bodleian. (Strachey did not manage
to get his book printed.) No detailed
collation is attempted in this edition.
Explanatory footnotes on points of
fact and language are provided. The
editors acknowledge that they draw
heavily for their account of Strachey's
life from an unpublished dissertation
by S. G. Culliford. The Historie is, as
its title-page frankly states, derived
from earlier accounts as well as from
the author's personal observations
during his three-year sojourn in Vir-
ginia. He is indebted to many writers
for material and to some extent for
phrases, but he writes lively English
and includes much original material,
especially on the Indians.

S. G. Culliford's interest in English
travellers also produced a note on
Hugh Holland in Turkey (MLN) in
which extracts from a letter in State
Papers, Turkey, v, enables corrections
to be made in Fuller's account of
the date and itinerary of Holland's
journey.

Three other biographical notes may
be mentioned here. P. D. Mundy
writes on Anne Turner, Executed for
Complicity in the Murder of Sir
Thomas Overbury, 1615 (NQ) and
P. J. Wallis writes about William
Crashaw (ibid.), father of the poet.
Wallis also puts forward in NQ some
problems in the biography of Charles
Hoole f Yorkshire Schoolmaster, 1609-
1667, and author of school manuals.

E. H. Miller points (HLQ) to
Greene's Third Part of Cony-Catch-
ing as Another Source for Anthony

Britania, by William Strachey, ed. by Louis
B. Wright and Virginia Freund. Quaritch,
for the Hakluyt Society, pp. xxxii+221.
Privately published.

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 135

Nixon's 'The Scourge of Corruption',
1615.

Godfrey Goodman: Nature Vilefied
(Cambridge Journal), by R. W. Hep-
burn, is a study of the doctrine, and
an analysis of the type of argument
used to support it, in Goodman's Fall
of Man, 1616. Goodman is an extreme
example of the school of thought ac-
cording to which Man was thoroughly
and Nature largely corrupted by the
Fall.

M. MacKinnon prints from the
manuscript in the British Museum An
Unpublished Consultation Letter of
Sir Thomas Browne (Bulletin of the
History of Medicine, xxvii. 503 ff.)
about the case of his old friend Sir
Charles Le Gros.

During Thomas Fuller's Oxford
Interlude in 1643 he was occupied,
conjectures J. O. Wood (HLQ), in the
composition ofAndronicus:A Tragedy
printed anonymously in 1661. Wood
adds a critical account of the play and
the evidence on which he bases the
ascription.

From the Bedfordshire Historical
Society has been received H. G. Tib-
butf s biography 10 of Colonel John
Okey, one of the most successful offi-
cers of the New Model army and an
influential person between the death
of the Protector and the Restoration.
It is marginal to our studies, but it is
mentioned here as a contribution to
the historical background of Com-
monwealth literature.

From R. P. Stearns comes a large
and handsomely produced biography
of Hugh Peter, 11 the Puritan who went
to America and succeeded Roger Wil-
liams as the minister of Salem, returned
to England in 1641, was in the New

10 Colonel John Okey, 1606-1662, by
H. G. Tibbutt. Publications of the Bedford-
shire Historical Record Society, vol. xxxv.
pp. viii+181. 255.

11 The Strenuous Puritan, by Raymond
Phineas Stearns. Illinois U.P. pp. xii+463.
S7.5Q,

Model, rose high in the Common-
wealth, and was hanged in 1 660. This
book also is history but must be at
least mentioned here if only for its
picture of the Commonwealth back-
ground and because Peter was the
author of Good Work for a Good
Magistrate, 1651, a book on political
and social reform which it is interest-
ing to compare with Milton's ideas.
Stearns defends Peter from the charges
of being a hypocrite and bigot which
have been brought against him, and
discusses his writings.

Nan C. Carpenter's paper called
Charles Butler and Du Bartas (NQ)
deals with the use made of the French
poet by Butler (c. 1559-1647) in his
book about bees, The Feminine Mon-
archie (revised edition of 1634), and
in his Principles of Music, 1636.

Margaret Gesf s book of selections
from Jeremy Taylor 12 consists of short
extracts arranged under headings such
as Tolerance, The Nature of God,
Time, and so on. The selection is
designed to do justice to Taylor as a
thinker and a man, not solely as a
stylist, and the introductory essay on
his character and his opinions and
their relation to contemporary events
lays stress on the permanent interest
of his thought.

Lovelace at Court and a Version of
Part of his 'The Scrutinie* by H. Berry
and E. K. Timings (MLN) reports
documents in the Record Office, one
showing that Lovelace was sworn *a
Gent Wayter extraordinary' to the
King on 5 May 1631, when he was
only 12 or 13; and the other preserv-
ing the earliest known version of part
of the poem.

Karina Williamson writes (Mod
Phil) Marvell's 'The Nymph Com-
plaining for the Death of her Fawn 1 :
A Reply to E. S. Le Comte's argu-

12 The House of Understanding, by Mar-
garet Gest. Pennsylvania U.P. and O.TJ.P.
pp.x+118. $2.75. 22s.

136

EARLIER STUART AND THE

merit, in opposition to M. C. Brad-
brook and M. G. Lloyd (see YW
xxxiii. 174), that the poem has no reli-
gious overtones. The reply agrees that
religion is not a main theme, but urges
that some passages evidently echo The
Song of Songs and utilize phrases and
images with definite religious associa-
tions.

H. J. Oliver writes (JEGP) The
Mysticism of Henry Vaughan: A
Reply to F. Kermode's article (see
YW xxxi. 167) which denied that
Vaughan was a mystic and argued
that he was a poet who made use of
the mystic's language. Oliver argues
the opposite case: he was a mystic
who used poet's language; but his
mystical experience was not specifi-
cally Christian.

D. C. Allen's essay (ELH) on
Vaugharis 'Cock-Crowing and the
Tradition is chiefly concerned with
the tradition. Vaughan knew he lived
in a dark world, veiled by his mor-
tality from the light of God, which he
glimpsed in this world only rarely and
dimly. From early pagan days the
cock was the symbol of light, and in
Christian times it became the symbol
of the priest and of the aspiring soul
it was the herald and dispeller of
darkness and had instinctive know-
ledge of the coming of the day. By the
time it came to Vaughan it was a rich
symbol for his poetic use.

K. W. Salter cites (from the Oxford
Diocesan Records in the Bodleian) the
evidence that The Date of Traherne's
Ordination (NQ) was 20 October 1660,
not 1657. H. H. Margoliouth (NQ,
p. 408) comments on this that the 1660
ordination was probably Traherne's
episcopal ordination, that the ordina-
tion of 1657 was probably not an epis-
copal one, the reason being, not that
bishops were not in that year of the
Commonwealth conferring ordination
they did so in secret but that Tra-
herne had not yet reached the mini-

mum canonical age of 23. Salter's dis-
covery, he suggests, is evidence that
Traherne was borne on or shortly
before 20 October 1637.

Number 44 of the Augustan Reprint
Society's publications (1953 but only
now received) is a facsimile edition of
The Odes of Casimire translated by
G. Hils, 1646. 13 In the Introduction
Maren-Sofie Roestvig informs us that
Casimire's Latin poems, and this trans-
lation of them, were influential on some
notable English poets Vaughan,
Cowley, Isaac Watts, Edward Ben-
lowes (who borrows passages from
Hils without acknowledgement) and
a detailed study of their influence on
English literature is promised for
future publication. This promise is in
part redeemed by the paper in HLQ
called Benlowes, Marvell, and -the
Divine Casimire in which Benlowes's
debt to Casimire is dealt with further,
It is also suggested that some of the
Horatian qualities of Marvell may
have come via Casimire as well as
direct Jfrom the Roman poet. There
are also passages on Vaughan and
Hermeticism and on the quasi-mysti-
cism in Marvell.

K. B. Harder shows, in The Ward-
law MS. and Sir Thomas Urquhart
(NQ), that in compiling the manu-
script James Fraser took and used
seriously the fantastic genealogy in
Urquhart's Pantochronochanon.

G. W. Wright prints (NQ, p. 201)
from a British Museum manuscript a
version of the Latin poem by Robert
South about Westminster School in
1652 which is claimed to be more cor-
rect than the version printed by Curll
in his edition of the Posthumous
Works of the Late Robert South,
1111. In NQ (p. 339) J. B. Whitmore,
objecting to misprints, misreadings,

13 Mathias Casimire Sarbiewski, The Odes
of Casimire, trans, by G. Hils, ed. by Maren-
Sofie Roestvig. pp. v-h[36]. By subscrip-
tion.

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 137

and mispunctuation (most of which
look like the work of a Latinless com-
positor), offers what he claims to be
an accurate transcription.

E. Sirluck in Eikon Basilike, Eikon
Alethine and Eikonoklastes (MLN)
marshalls evidence that, although the
accepted view is that Gauden's author-
ship of the Eikon Basilike was a close
secret until 1690, the Commonwealth-
men in fact knew or strongly suspec-
ted it from the outset.

The third volume 14 appears this year
of L M. French's elaborate documen-
tation of the life records of John Mil-
ton. The method remains the same
(see YW xxxi. 173) and all that it is
necessary to say now is that the present
volume covers the period from 4
March 1651 to 27 December 1654.

Dramatists' Namesakes and Mil-
tons Father (NQ) by R. G. Howarth
includes a reference to a mention of
John Milton Senior in 1621. Under
the title Milton a Firenze (Nuova
Antologia, 1953) Piero Rebora de-
scribes and discusses what is known
about Milton's stay in Florence in
1638. Among other matters of interest
he makes critical comment on Mil-
ton's Italian verses; gives some details
of Milton's Florentine friends; thinks
it unlikely that Milton could actually
have visited Galileo either then or on
the return visit in 1639; but adds that
all the same there were at that moment
beneath the bright sky of Florence two
heroic spirits, both keenly sensitive to
the beauty and grandeur of light In
Milton in Italy and the Lost Malatesti
Manuscript (S in Ph) S. Kliger reports
his discovery of new facts about this
collection of sonnets called La Tina,
of which Malatesti gave Milton a
manuscript. C. A. Toase gives (NQ,
p. 546) references about Milton's
house at Colnbrook, and W. A.

14 The Life Records of John Milton, by
J. Milton French. Rutgers U.P. pp. [6]+
470. $7.50.

Turner writes (NQ) on Milton's
Friendship 'with Cromwell's Grand-
daughter, Bridget Bendish, nee Ireton,
mother of the Henry Bendish men-
tioned by Richardson in his biography
of the poet.

E. A. Block writes in the Bulletin of
the History of Medicine on Milton's
Gout. The symptoms of the disease
and its effects on the patient are de-
scribed; it is suggested that in Milton's
case there was probably an hereditary
disposition to it since his habit of life
was the opposite of what is usually
associated with gout; that he probably
died, not from gout itself as his early
biographers report, but from a cor-
related heart-failure, which would
account for the tranquillity of his
death; that he began to suffer from
it between 1664 and 1666, but not
continuously; that the references to
what appears to be gout in Samson
Agonistes is a small scrap of evidence
in favour of -the traditional dating of
that poem; and that to be cheerful
and good-tempered in the torments of
gout, as Milton was, says much for a
man's fortitude.

The main point in E. Sirluck's review
(Mod Phil lii. 63) of G. F. Sensabaugh's
That Grand Whig Milton (YW xxxiii.
178) is that it ascribes to Milton's in-
fluence the appearance in the succeed-
ing generation of ideas which were
not specifically Miltonic but were
quite generally held by men of the
Commonwealth.

In the Introduction to his volume
of studies in Milton's poetry, 15 D. C.
Allen expounds a somewhat abstruse
idea of the unifying theme of Milton's
work. The real essence of the ordered
beauty which is God is inaccessible;
but the heaven in which the angels
exist is a 'vision' of that beauty. So
too is Eden and unf alien Mankind.

15 The Harmonious Vision, by Don
Cameron Allen. Johns Hopkins Press and
O.U.P. pp. xx+125. $3. 24s.

138

EARLIER STUART AND THE

So too, in its different mode, is re-
deemed Mankind. The prophet-poet
is inspired with a vision of those
visions, and the 'harmonious vision'
of his poetry enables his readers to
share that vision: of Paradise Lost it
is therefore said that 'the text that lies
before us is really the harmonious
vision of a vision'. It may be ques-
tioned whether this idea does in fact
unify Allen's book; but the six essays
in the volume contain much thought-
ful and valuable suggestion. L Allegro
and // Penseroso are treated as poems
of the deepest sort of significance., not
as beautiful but superficial things. In
them, especially in the second, Milton
is, to quote the title of the essay, en-
gaged in 'the search for the prophetic
strain', and by the end of the poem
'the way to the ultimate gratification
is known'. But many readers may find
the incidental exegesis more interest-
ing and rewarding than the conclu-
sion. On Comus Allen argues a view
he has expressed before, that it is 'an
attempted reconciliation of opposites
that failed'. Lyddas raises and answers
a question both general and personal
to Milton. The predestined work'
that of prophet-poet 'for which God
had fitted him required a seemingly
endless preparation before it could be
begun; yet somewhere along the way
stood . . . death. . . . But the fear is
gone now, purgation of doubts is cer-
tain and has come with the completion
of the elegy.' There is no space to
comment on the following essays on
Samson Agonistes, Paradise Lost, and
Paradise Re gain' d except to commend
them.

There is a long and detailed review
of Allen's book in Mod Phil (Hi. 211)
by M. Y. Hughes, containing some
objections, but mainly approving.

F. T. Prince's book 16 on Milton is

16 The Italian Element in Milton's Verse,
by F. T. Prince. O.U.P. pp. xv+183.
12s. 6d,

small but it is one of the most valuable
contributions to Milton studies for
some time. Starting from Johnson's
observation that there was Italian in-
fluence perceptible in Milton's diction,
Prince was led to extend his analysis
to prosody and rhythm, and to dis-
cover more Italian influence than has
commonly been allowed for. He pre-
sents his results with tact and a sense
of proportion, and the brief introduc-
tion, a judicial summing-up, is admir-
able. In the body of the book he de-
monstrates, by convincing analysis
and illuminating quotation, how many
of the novel characteristics of Milton's
epic style were suggested by the novel-
ties of style achieved by Tasso and by
Tasso's own critical essay on heroic
style. 'Paradise Lost was in fact to be
the European epic which realized the
dreams of Tasso and his predecessors,
not only in its scale and its religious
intensity, but in the beauty of its poetic
vision and language. The Italian
theories and experiments had pointed
the way; Milton brought to this liter-
ary heritage the full heroic temper it
required.' Similarly, it is shown that
Delia Casa's sonnets were full of sug-
gestions that went to the making of
Milton's; that Lyddas and the ode-
like poems are deeply influenced by
the prosody of the canzone tradition;
and that Samson Agonistes can be
compared in some important respects
of versification with Tasso's A mint a
and Guarini's Pastor Fido. But it must
be stressed that Prince is not merely
finding parallels and leaving it at that:
he tries throughout to suggest the pur-
pose and poetic effect of the derived
rhythm or stylistic device and makes
many penetrating remarks that deserve
the attention of readers of Milton who
are not much interested in literary
genetics but are interested in appre-
ciating the achieved poem.

Ants Oras independently develops
the probability that Milton was fol-

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 139

lowing Italian models in his rhyme-
patterns. Milton's Early Rhyme
Schemes and the Structure of 'Lyci-
das' (Mod Phil) shows that the rhym-
ing of Lycidas is not, as many critics
have said, capricious and regulated
only by the poet's fine ear: it follows
a very elaborate, almost arithmetical
pattern. The specific model, Oras
thinks, is probably to be found in
Tasso's pastoral drama, // Rogo di
Corinna, in which the lyrical speeches
consist of what amounts to a series of
madrigals 'joined into a more exten-
sive and intricate whole'. Milton, far
from finding rhyme difficult, as some
writers have suggested, was, Oras con-
cludes, a positive virtuoso of rhyme,
and relied as much on an intellec-
tually controlled pattern as on his fine
ear.

H. F. Robins suggests that Milton's
'Two Handed Engine at the Door'
(RES) is Christ the agent (engine) of
God coming to separate the good from
the bad and adjudge the appropriate
reward. The reference, he suggests, is
to Matthew xxv. 31-46.

In 'Lycidas', Petrarch, and the
Plague (MLN) E. S. Le Comte shows
that Hunter (YW xxxi. 178) was right
to suspect a Renaissance intermediary
between Aristotle and the lines on
diseased sheep in Lycidas. It was
Petrarch's Latin Eclogues, no. 9. Le
Comte also notes that Petrarch was
dealing with the plague as a visitation
of God, and that Lycidas was written
in a plague year.

Seeking to find common elements in
European poetry labelled as 'baroque'
and so to ascertain whether a precise
definition of the term can be arrived
at, L. Nelson, Jr. (Comp Lit), writes
Gongora and Milton: Toward a Defi-
nition of the Baroque. In this he sug-
gests that one such element may be
the deliberate use of time as a struc-
tural element. The two poems put for-
ward are the Polifemo of Gongora

and Milton's Nativity Ode. In the
Spanish poem the tense used alter-
nates between present and past, and
it is suggested that 6 the most important
means of structure is not plot in the
ordinary sense, but rather plot as con-
tinuous acceleration of alternating
tenses'. A similar 'forceful conjunction
of separate time planes' is discerned in
Milton's poem. In Milton and the New
Music (UTQ) L. Stapleton also dis-
cusses the structure of the Nativity
Ode and makes some points interest-
ingly in agreement with Nelson. His
main purpose, however, is to suggest
'an exploration of the contrast be-
tween the enchantments of deceit and
the truth for which music is a sign'.
Clement of Alexandria had spoken of
Christ and Christian truth as 'new
music' to replace the deceptive music
of the pagan bards; Milton describes
it rather as an 'announcement of a
change in human history' and at the
end of the poem 'we are left with the
attentiveness and clarity that was
created for us by the opening lines,
but there has been a change, a dis-
covery'. Finally, in a book 17 which
should have been noticed last year
and escaped because it was ostensibly
about French poetry, Odette de
Mourgues also discusses the term
'Baroque' and suggests that aspects of
Baroque poetry are, to quote the sec-
tions of her chapter on the subject,
'the mystical, the morbid, the macabre,
the cosmic, the apocalyptic, and the
absurd'. She compares some late Eliza-
bethan and some Metaphysical Eng-
lish poets with some French poets
whom she regards as also 'Metaphysi-
cals' a term she distinguishes from
Baroque and Precieux. The book is
chiefly of interest to students of
French literature, but the comparisons
are of considerable interest from our

17 Metaphysical Baroque and Precieux
Poetry, by Odette de Mourgues. OJQ.P.
pp.viii+184. 2ls.

140

EARLIER STUART AND THE

point of view also. Her book was dis-
cussed in a front-page article in TLS
(p. 845) which considered its bearing
on the English Metaphysicals and
made some comment on them.

Dick Taylor, Jr., points out, in Grace
as a Means of Poetry: Milton's Pattern
for Salvation (Tulane Studies in Eng-
lish), that Milton's belief was that sal-
vation came only by God's grace, but
man had to prove himself eligible for
that grace by his efforts in trial and
temptation. This belief, Taylor argues,
provides an organizing pattern for all
Milton's major poems: 'structurally,
he organized each work in a similar
sequence: trial of the protagonist,
proof, and extension of grace accom-
panied by a miraculous event . . the
pattern . . . was no artificial one,
which Milton created and arbitrarily
imposed upon his material; it arose
organically from his view of life . . .'.
The rest of the long article discusses
this pattern in Comus, Lycidas, Para-
dise Lost, Samson Agonistes, and
Paradise Regain'd.

E. S. Le Comte collects and studies
Milton's borrowings from himself. 18
The subject is not reiterated images
but repetitions of words, phrases, and
ideas. In such studies there is always
a danger of taking as significant or in-
cluding for completeness things that
are common set formulae or inevita-
bilities, and though Le Comte shows
that he is alive to this danger he may
be thought not always to have avoided
it. But some of his collocations are en-
lightening and bring out subtleties
most of us may well have missed. The
assembly of repetitions certainly
proves that Milton frequently repeated
himself in fully finished work, and
that in his epic poems he used the
equivalent of Homer's formulae and
fixed epithets. In the English poems

18 Yet Once More, by Edward S. Le
Comte. Liberal Arts Press, pp. ix-f-192.
S4.50.

Le Comte finds 'about three hundred
duplicated phrases'. Again there are
details that make one's eyebrows rise.
In the Nativity Ode Milton wrote 'Say,
Heavenly Muse'; in P.L. 'Sing, Hea-
venly Muse': 'the difference in the
verbs may be taken as an indication
of his growth in skill and self-assur-
ance'. But 'rash hand' in Comus 397
and P.L. ix. 780 is a repetition that
brings together two passages fruitfully
and suggestively comparable. And
again, the assembly of frequent repe-
tition in poems separated by thirty
years shows that no evidence from
repetition can safely be used to date
the poems. The light thrown by repe-
titions on Milton's views about women
and bishops is the subject of a very
interesting chapter. Finally, Le Comte
considers what help the study of repe-
tition can give in problems of sense
and text. With the two-handed engine
and the sacred well in Lycidas it
simply warns against over-confidence;
it supports the interpretation 'for-
bear' in 'spare to interpose them oft'
in Sonnet 20; and in Areopagitica it
supports the reading 'true warfaring
Christian' and favours 'seeks her
adversary'.

Reviewing (Mod Phil Hi. 207) Le
Comte's book and A. Stein's book on
Milton (see YW xxxiv. 207) R. M.
Adams is much severer on Le Comte
than the notice above, and since he
condemns Stein's style, method, and
results and, unlike the YW notice,
finds nothing to praise in the book, the
review is referred to here.

The volume 19 on Comus by J. Arthos
is disconcerting. It is not easy to detect
what goal is aimed at and, justly or
unjustly, the reader at times gets the
impression that one purpose of the
book was to accommodate as much as
possible of a file of material on the

19 On a Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle,
by John Arthos. Michigan U.P. and O.U.P.
pp. ix+86. $2. 165. Paper covers.

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 141

Mask. Nor are the three essays writ-
ten in a very precise or unpretentious
style.

The first essay deals with Milton's
debts to Peele's Old Wives Tale and
Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess: the
elements of fairy story and of pas-
toral. The second discusses the use
of 'romantic' elements to add further
subtleties, and there are here some
sensitive suggestions about the
methods by which Milton gives to the
world he is creating a sense of strange
loveliness that is yearned for yet per-
haps perilous.

J. McKenzie adds (see YW xxxiv.
203) three further dates of Early Scot-
tish Performances of 'Comus' (NQ) in
1748, 1749, and 1751.

Elsie Duncan-Jones explains Mil-
ton's 'Late Court Poet' (NQ), a phrase
in The Ready and Easy Way, as a
reference to Davenant and Gondibert,
n. ii. 14.

D. S. Berkeley corrects a gloss in
M. Y. Hughes's Prose Selections from
Milton, 1947, and points out that
'Determinate Sentence' in Milton's
'Of Education' (NQ) means 'definite,
conclusive, final'.

J. George suggests (NQ) that the
queried word 'cujus' in An Entry in
Milton's Common-place Book on
folio 116 should be emended to read
'coitus'. (It is so translated in the Yale
Milton.)

E. S. Le Comte, discussing The
Veiled Face of Milton's Wife (NQ),
notes that Euripides' Alcestis is veiled;
refers to a similar dream of Charles
Dickens's, in which the spirit of a be-
loved woman was recognized although
it was featureless; points out that by
Anglican custom a woman went veiled
to her 'churching'; and suggests that
the emphasis on purity in the sonnet
was prompted by the name Katharine
(katharos: clean). Together with some
minor points, these, he considers, sup-
port the view that the sonnet is about

the second, not the first of Milton's
wives.

In 'A Book was Writ of Late . .
(MLN) H. Schultz gives reasons for
interpreting Milton's lines to mean
'the age of Cheke hated learning as
does ours'.

The purpose of Sister Miriam
Joseph's essay 20 on Orthodoxy in
'Paradise Losf is to examine the ques-
tion whether the Catholic reader can
respond to the poem without fear of
doctrinal offence and with enhanced
religious sensibility. Much of what she
says will be familiar enough to Milton
scholars, although the reader she ad-
dresses may need the restatement. She
goes further than Douglas Bush and
other scholars who find only that the
heresies of De Doctrina are not ob-
truded in Paradise Lost; she finds the
poem thoroughly orthodox on the
Trinity and on Creation. In consider-
ing what the reader gains from the
poem she has no difficulty in rebutting
the suggestion that Milton admires
Satan and leads the reader to admire
him; but she does not consider Wai-
dock's point that the story involves the
necessity of God's playing cat and
mouse with the fallen Satan, and that
Milton does nothing to shield God
from this distasteful impression. Nor,
considering Adam's fall, does she at-
tempt any real answer to Waldock's
view that, Eve having fallen, Adam
was then faced with a moral dilemma
admitting no complete and satisfac-
tory solution. It is, however, useful to
have the testimony of an expert that
'an intelligent Catholic reader can en-
joy in Paradise Lost the expression of
dogmatic, moral, and philosophical
truths impregnated with a power pecu-
liar to poetry, the power not merely to
teach but to delight and move'.

20 Orthodoxy in 'Paradise Lost, by Sister
Miriam Joseph, C.S.C. Reprinted from
Laval Theologique et Philosophique, viii. 2.
pp. 243-84. Paper covers.

142

EARLIER STUART AND THE

R. M. Adams's Empson and Bentley
(Partisan Review) is an onslaught on
Empson's criticism of P.L. in Some
Versions of Pastoral which is charged
with errors of quotation, of fact, and
of interpretation; but Adams has
points to make about the poem itself
and tries to suggest a way in which it
can properly be regarded as in a sense
'ambiguous' like pastoral. Adams also
studies (Mod Phil) The Text of 'Para-
dise Lost': Emphatic and Unemphatic
Spellings, and having reviewed the
evidence about 'he: hee' and 'their:
thir', concludes that the whole theory
is 'fantasy and delusion'; that Milton
left the detailed spelling of his text to
the printer; and that consequently
Helen Darbishire is misguided in her
attempt (see YW xxxiii. 182) to restore
Milton's 'own' spelling. R. O. Evans
tackles the same problem with respect
to Milton's Use of 'E'er' in 'Paradise
Lost' (NQ). He ends by questioning
whether Milton's usage was as con-
sistent fe're' for 'ever' and 'ere' for
'before') as Helen Darbishire sup-
poses.

In a note on Milton's Infernal
Council and Mantuan (PMLA) E. S.
Le Comte points to a passage in Man-
tuan's Georgius which offers parallels
to passages in the speeches of the fal-
len angels, including some usually
compared with the OE. Genesis B.

J. C. Maxwell in 'The Sensible of
Pain 1 : Paradise Lost, ii. 278 (RES)
glosses the phrase: 'that element in
our pain which is apprehended by the
senses'.

J. B. Broadbent's essay on Milton's
Hell (ELH) is impossible to sum-
marize. It is a running commentary
on the descriptions in Books I and II,
with frequent excursions to the rest of
the poem, and it is full of observations,
most of them interesting, but some
unconvincing: one is more than a little
incredulous when told that 'the sexual
motif is most obvious in a series of

phallic emblems . . . such as the banner
of Azazel' and the 'Forrest huge of
Spears'. Obviously, surely, only if one
has just finished Freud on dream sym-
bols and is seeing them everywhere.
On the other hand, there are many
valuable comments on Pandemon-
ium, on Satan's tears, on the Chivalry
in Hell, for instance and an analysis
of the exordium as a subtle composi-
tion which in its varying tone, rhythm,
and elevation of style states the main
motifs and moods of the ensuing epic.
In a similar essay Broadbent writes on
Milton's Paradise (Mod Phil). Milton's
problem was to make the Garden
realistic enough to be convincing as
the scene of the action but sufficiently
'distanced' to avoid familiarity and
remain acceptable as Paradise. Broad-
bent shows how Milton selected de-
tails and 'subdued and idealized facts'
from books of travel and compounded
them to accomplish this. To ideas from
travel books Milton added ideas al-
ready enriched by the poets. In such a
setting he has to describe Adam and
Eve. Broadbent makes some enlighten-
ing remarks on the qualities of this
description.

H. F. Robins argues (MLN, p. 76)
against the commentators who suppose
that Milton's Golden Chain that sus-
pends the universe is also the golden
ladder that stretches from the zenith
of the cosmic sphere to the gate of
heaven. The ladder is sometimes drawn
up (iii. 516-18), and if it were the
chain, the universe would at such a
time plunge unheld into Chaos.
Robins also discusses The Chrystal-
line Sphere and the 'Waters Above' in
'Paradise Lost' (PMLA). He gives a
clear and useful explanation of these
concepts and their history, and argues
that all the editors are wrong in sup-
posing that Milton conceived of the
waters as in some way enclosed in the
sphere. On the contrary, he located
them on the outside of the Primum

COMMONWEALTH PERIOD, EXCLUDING DRAMA 143

Mobile, on the exterior of the cos-
mic sphere, which they protected
from the extremes of the surrounding
Chaos.

F. L. Huntley has (MLN) a note on
Milton, Mendoza, and the Chinese
Land-ship-, and in ELH he has a
general Justification of Milton's 'Para-
dise of Fools' ('P.L.' in. 431-99): It is
not, if properly viewed, a grotesque ex-
crescence on the poem. Satan pauses,
alone, at a mid-point on his mission-
ary journey to seduce Man; but he
will not always be alone: there will be
many vain proudlings to populate this
spot: a spot, moreover, at which is to
be anchored the hither end of the
Bridge from Hell. On this spot Satan
decides to continue, not to turn back:
it is an appropriate spot in the universe
and an appropriate place in the poem
to collect images of vanity, of men and
things at the mercy of chance winds,
of miscegenation (Sin and Death enter
the World at this spot), and of Giant
enemies of God all of them products
of the Fall. This same passage is also
the first of those discussed by L. D.
Lerner in his essay on The Miltonic
Simile (Ess Crif) which 'examines
actual similes from the standpoint of
literary criticism'. He makes some of
the same points as Huntley and goes
on to analyse other passages to justify
his conclusion that the similes in P.L.
are not digressions but closely linked
to the poem as a whole, while at the
same time they have the function of
reminding us of the 'world of human
actions, human manners, and human
interests' of which the poem itself is
a part.

Under the title 'Grateful Vicissitude'
in 'Paradise Lost' (PMLA) J. H. Sum-
mers discusses the morning hymn in
Book V as exemplifying that 'variety'
which was for Milton 'intrinsic to per-
fection'.

In MLN E. H. Emerson considers
Milton's War in Heaven: Some Prob-

lems. Why did God not send into the
battle the other two-thirds of the un-
fallen angels but left the committed
third to struggle with Satan's host,
even though he knew that if only this
third were used the battle could not
be decided until the Son intervened?
Why did he commit this one-third at
all since the War was destined to be
won by the Son and by the Son alone?
The answer is that Raphael is pointing
the moral for Adam's benefit: Good
cannot wholly conquer evil without
divine help, but Adam can at least
hold his own against evil to the extent
of not being conquered; and God
helps those and only those who help
themselves.

Ants Oras gives (MLR) good reason
for supposing, against most of the
editors, that in 'Goddess Humane'
('Paradise Lost', ix. 732) the adjective
means 'human', not 'humane'. G.
Koretz on 'Paradise Lost', ix. 910 (Ex-
plicator) points out that when Adam
speaks of 'these wilde Woods forlorn*
it is 'forlorn' that principally carries
his emotion, for the trees of Paradise
are in fact wild as being both in a state
of nature and also so fecund as to be-
come entangled in their own 'wanton
growth'. B. A. Wright's Note on Mil-
ton's Punctuation (RES) comments
on the unauthorized and unnecessary
comma inserted by many editors
and critics after 'dar'd' in P.L. ix.
922.

A. I. Carlisle, in a paper on Milton
and Ludwig Lavater (RES), notes that
the earlier transcriptions (Masson,
Columbia ed., &c.) of the reference to
Lavater in the Trinity MS. are correct
and W. A. Wright's wrong. He further
suggests the influence of that passage
of Lavater on Paradise Regain 'd, i.
365-453.

On Samson Agonistes there are
only two short notes to report. J. C.
Maxwell, in Milton's Samson and
Sophocles' Heracles (PQ\ points out

144 EARLIER STUART AND COMMONWEALTH PERIOD

a similarity in the use of ambiguous other arms'. By adducing a number

oracles between Milton's play and of seventeenth-century examples he

the Trachiniae. R. L McDavid re- shows that there is no linguistic objec-

examines the question whether we tion to 'force thee wish', and he points

should in 'Samson Agonistes' 1096 out that there is no textual authority

(PQ) read 'with other arms' or 'wish for 'with' before 1720.

XL RESTORATION PERIOD

By V. DE SOLA PINTO

IN the State Archives at Florence
there is a great wealth of manuscript
material relating to Restoration Eng-
land. This includes the autograph
dispatches of Giovanni Salvetti and
Francisco Terriesi, the Residents of
the Grand Duke of Tuscany in Lon-
don, copies of which are among the
Additional Manuscripts in the British
Museum. These dispatches are par-
ticularly interesting because of the
intimate details which they give of the
state of affairs in England at the time
of the Popish Plot agitation of 1678
to 1681. In addition to the dispatches
there is a great collection of English
pamphlets dealing with the Plot, which
Terriesi sent to the Grand Duke, and
which are bound up in four volumes
in the Florentine Archives.

Anna Maria Grind has now pub-
lished a very valuable study entitled
// Popish Plot 1 based on these remark-
able and hitherto little-known docu-
ments. In her interesting introductory
pages she points out that the Grand
Duke Cosimo visited England in 1669
and took a keen interest in English
affairs throughout his life. He was one
of the few continental celebrities of
the period who were interested in the
English language and English litera-
ture, and it is interesting to learn from
Signorina Grind's book that he asked
Terriesi to send him an English dic-
tionary, a grammar, works on the pro-
nunciation and etymology of English
words, and models of English style.
He also asked the Resident to send

1 Anna Maria Crino. // Popish Plot mile
Relazioni Inedite del Residenti Grandu-
cali alia Corte di Londra (1678-1681}.
Roma, 1954. Edizioni di Storia e Lettera-
tura, Via Lancellotti 18. pp. 302.

B 5641 K

him 'le opere di Gio: Milton in idioma
inglese' and as a result seems to have
received six works, one of which was
the first edition of Paradise Lost and
another the Poems upon Several Occa-
sions of 1673.

Signorina Crino quotes extensively
throughout her book from the original
dispatches of Salvetti and Terriesi,
using the manuscripts in the Floren-
tine Archives. She states (p. 13) that a
comparison between the original dis-
patches and the copies in the British
Museum has revealed serious mistakes
in the latter 'which at times falsify or
render incomprehensible the text'.

Students of the English literature of
the period will note particularly the
account in Italian prose (quoted on
pp. 206-7) of the Earl of Shaftesbury
by the Count Lorenzo Magalotti, one
of the Grand Duke's chief advisers,
who accompanied him on his visit to
England in 1667. This sketch bears a
remarkable resemblance to Dryden's
famous 'character* in Absalom and
AchitopheL Another passage quoted
by Signorina Crino on p. 247 contains
a direct and very interesting reference
to Dryden. This is from a dispatch of
Terriesi to the Grand Duke dated 22
December/1 January 1679/80, and
it obviously refers to the notorious
Rose Alley ambuscade of 1 8 Decem-
ber 1679.

'Sorti li giorni adietro una satira
che intaccando li Ministri tutti e quelli
ch'hanno mano nel governo o publici
affari, s'estendeva sin alia Duchessa
di Portsmouth et all* istessa persona
del Re; onde e stato di notte tempo
maltrattato un tal Mr. Dreydon, poeta
delle commedie che si recitano attual-
mente, dicesi per esser stata creduta

146

RESTORATION PERIOD

sua compositione, ma esso protesta la
sua innocenza.'

The 'satira' is obviously An Essay
upon Satyr. It is significant that the
well-informed Terriesi, writing soon
after the outrage, says nothing about
the allegation, so often repeated later,
that its instigator was John Wilmot,
Earl of Rochester. It may also be
noted that he particularly mentions
the Duchess of Portsmouth as one of
the chief butts of the lampoon and this
lends support to the view expressed by
Wood and Luttrell that she was re-
sponsible for the assault on Dryden.

At the end of the book Signorina
Crino prints a list of English books
sent to the Grand Duke directly to
Leghorn by a ship called // Mercante
di Mexico and another of a consign-
ment sent by Calais and Paris. She
also gives in full the titles of all the
English pamphlets in the five volumes
of the Grand Duke's Collection, over
four hundred items in all, a most
valuable contribution to the biblio-
graphy of the English pamphlet litera-
ture of the period.

The book is excellently printed and
produced, and illustrated by some
good reproductions of contemporary
paintings and prints. Signorina Crino
has carried out her work with scho-
larly thoroughness and she and her
publishers deserve the thanks of all
students of English Restoration his-
tory and literature. It is to be hoped
that an English translation of this im-
portant book will soon be published
in this country.

The classic biographies of Dryden
by Johnson, Scott, and Saintsbury will
always be read with pleasure and pro-
fit. Since Saintsbury's time, however,
much research in Dryden and his
milieu has been carried out, chiefly by
American scholars, and has yielded
important results. The most up-to-date
resume of this research is to be found
in the Introduction to the Second Edi-

tion of G. R. Noyes's one volume edi-
tion of the Poems (see YW xxxiii. 1 88).
This, however, is only a short sketch
and a full-length biography is ob-
viously needed. Kenneth Young's John
Dryden 2 can hardly claim to be the
definitive biography which twentieth-
century students of Dryden are await-
ing, but it is a work of considerable
merit, concise, lively, unpedantic, and
written with admirable gusto and en-
thusiasm. Illustrating his narrative at
every point by apt quotations from
the work of Dryden and his contem-
poraries Young gives the reader a
series of vivid 'shots' of the poet at
different stages of his career: the West-
minster schoolboy, the Cambridge
undergraduate, the rising poet of the
early years of the Restoration, the dis-
illusioned rival of Settle, Shadwell,
and Otway, and finally the old Dryden
aptly described by Young as c a tough,
brave, trusting old man'. The chief
fault of the book is a tendency to over-
dramatize the material and to be too
consistently and sometimes quite un-
necessarily picturesque. Proof-reading
has been somewhat careless. A famous
Horatian tag is mangled on p. 59 and
on p. 174 Dryden's own remarks on
Milton are misquoted so badly that
they are turned into almost complete
nonsense. It is also sad to find a repeti-
tion of the old and long-exploded
legend that Etherege fell downstairs
and broke his neck when he was envoy
at Ratisbon (p. 152). However, Young
has made good use of recent research
on Dryden and his knowledge is, for
the most part, commendably up to
date. His book is a real contribution
to the study of Dryden and may be
recommended as a stimulating intro-
duction to the poet for young students.
The starting-point of an acute and
stimulating article by D. W. Jefferson
in Ess Crit entitled Aspects of Dry-

2 John Dryden: A Critical Biography, by
Kenneth Young. Sylvan Press, pp. 240. 2ls.

RESTORATION PERIOD

147

den 's Imagery is a passage in Mark
Van Doren's well-known The Poetry
of John Dry den in which Van Doren
denies that Dryden ever displayed 'a
happy gift for turning out images' and
argues that, unlike Shakespeare and
Donne, 'when Dryden became fired,
he only wrote more plainly'. Jeffer-
son's rejoinder to this is that the 'meta-
physical element' in Dryden's poetry
is not merely something 'vestigial' oc-
curring mainly in his early work, but
that in his mature poetry, and espe-
cially in the rhymed heroic plays and
the satires, he makes effective use of
'the metaphysical art of using images
suggestively and wittily'. The poet
with whom Jefferson is chiefly con-
cerned in this article is not the 'late
metaphysical' poet of Astraea Redux
and Annus Mirabilis but the mature
Dryden of the heroic plays, the great
satires, and The Hind and the Panther.
In some suggestive pages he illustrates
the 'lurking comic intention' of the
rhymed plays, showing how 'the idea
of the invincible hero so vulnerable
to burlesque is deliberately cultivated
along with the element of dignity'. He
points to Dryden's love of images con-
nected with 'a comic conception of the
human species, of the processes apper-
taining to its creation and generation,
and of the relationship between soul
and body'. He traces images arising
from these conceptions not only in the
plays but in Absalom and Achitophel
and The Hind and the Panther. Mat-
ter, too, he shows to be a fruitful
source of Dryden's imagery, and he
considers 'the play of attitudes con-
veyed in his body-matter-soul imagery'
to have value as a criticism of the life
of the age, 'an age of contrasts: on the
one hand, the cultivation of splendour;
on the other, a marked tendency to
the prosaic'. He offers an interesting
interpretation of The Hind and the
Panther based on its imagery: 'He
(Dryden) achieved, as it were, a sort

of revenge against religion for being
difficult by making it almost grossly
palpable and introducing a suggestion
of travesty.' In a concluding paragraph
the 'metaphysical effects' in Dryden
are compared with those traced by Dr.
Leavis in Pope and it is argued that
Leavis has 'underestimated a little
Dryden's place in the "line of wit" and
Pope's indebtedness to him in this con-
nexion'.

The influence of the Roman rhetori-
cians on Dryden has been mentioned
by critics but hitherto there has been
no close investigation of the subject.
Such an investigation has been carried
out very efficiently by Lillian Feder in
an article in PMLA entitled John Dry-
den's Use of Classical Rhetoric. Lil-
lian Feder devotes her opening pages
to an account of the conception of the
orator as found in Cicero and Quin-
tilian and argues that 'the Roman rhe-
toricians presented an ideal of the man
of letters which Dryden accepted and
took for his own'. She discusses the
use of ancient rhetorical technique in
Dryden's critical essays and also com-
pares his conception of the function
of the poet with that which Cicero and
Quintilian assign to the orator. She
sees Dryden's development as a 'pro-
gress from declamatio to oratio\ the
declamatio being the oratory of dis-
play or epideictic address and the
oratio that which inspires men by
'reasonable and moving argumenta-
tion'. Her article concludes with illu-
minating comments on some of Dry-
den's major poems viewed in relation
to the tradition of classical rhetoric.

A passage in Absalom and Achito-
phel never very satisfactorily ex-
plained by the editors is the couplet
in which the poet writes of Shaftes-
bury (Achitophel):
David for him his tuneful harp had strung
And Heav'n had wanted no immortal song.

In a short article entitled One Im-
mortal Song in RES H. Hammond

148

RESTORATION PERIOD

examines the passage in the light of
G. R. Noyes's note on it. The alterna-
tives suggested by Noyes are that the
'immortal song' could be (a) one of
David's songs (perhaps Psalm iii or
the lament for Absalom in 2 Samuel
xviii. 33), (b) Dryden's own immortal
poem of Absalom and Achitophel. All
these suggestions are rejected by Ham-
mond. His theory is that the couplet
means that 'David would have made
a psalm in honour of Achitophel and
that which he made against him (Psalm
cix) would be lacking'. He shows that
it was believed by certain seventeenth-
century commentators on the Bible
that Psalm cix referred to Achitophel
and that Dryden would have found
this interpretation of the psalm in such
well-known works as the Critic! Sacri
of 1660 and Poole's Synopsis Criti-
corum of 1671. Most satisfactory of
all from Dryden's point of view would
be the fact that, however commenta-
tors differed about the identity of the
person denounced in the psalm, they
were agreed that allegorically he repre-
sented Judas and indeed the psalm
was sometimes called 'Psalmum Isca-
rioticum'.

It is well known to all students of
Restoration drama that Dryden and
Sir Robert Howard collaborated in
the rhymed heroic play called The
Indian Queen produced in 1664. None
of Dryden's critics or editors, how-
ever, have hitherto made any serious
attempt to find out what parts of the
play can be assigned to Dryden and
what to Howard. John Harrington
Smith in an article entitled The Dry-
den-Howard Collaboration in S in Ph
has now published a very careful and
scholarly examination of the colla-
boration of the two authors in this
play. He is the first critic to use as
evidence Howard's play The Vestal
Virgin. In this play he finds two strata,
one rhymed and one unrhymed. He
believes that the unrhymed stratum

represents an early version, written
perhaps in late 1662 or 1663, and the
rhymed, a revised version, written
after his collaboration with Dryden
in The Indian Queen, when Howard
was setting 'himself to out-write any-
thing in the Queen, whether by Dry-
den or himself. Now there is evidence
in Howard's other works that he tends
to repeat himself. Parallels between the
Queen and the Virgin might, therefore,
in circumstances carefully defined by
Harrington Smith, indicate Sir Robert's
hand in the former. Using this clue as
well as other indications Harrington
Smith goes through the play scene by
scene indicating which parts can be
assigned respectively to Howard and
Dryden. The result is that Harrington
Smith establishes a presumption that
Howard could have written more of
the play than has usually been sup-
posed. His estimate is that on a rough
count of pages in the Scott-Saintsbury
edition twenty-five can be given to
Dryden and twenty-six to Howard and
his verdict is that 'it seems fair, every-
thing considered, to give Sir Robert
half the credit for the achievement'.

The celebrated quarrel between
Dryden and Buckingham is commonly
associated with The Rehearsal (1671)
and the Character of Zimri (1681).
John Harrington Smith, in an article
in MLN entitled Dryden and Bucking-
ham: The Beginnings of the Feud,
traces it back to 1667 when Bucking-
ham in his Epilogue to The Chances
alludes rather sarcastically to Dryden's
very successful Secret Love produced
earlier in the same year. Smith shows
that Dryden retorted in the prologue
to Albumazar (1668). The original
form of The Rehearsalwith Davenant
or Howard as the central figure was
planned in 1663/4. In Smith's opinion
'the epilogue to The Chances shows
that by 1667 the Duke had begun to
think seriously of him (Dryden) for
the leading role' while 'the prologue

RESTORATION PERIOD

149

to Albumazar must have supplied a
clincher'. In his concluding paragraph
Smith refers to the satire Timon as
Buckingham's without qualification.
There is actually better evidence for
ascribing it to Rochester or at least to
a collaboration between the two poets.

Lord Nonsuch, the absurd character
in Dryden's The Wild Gallant, who is
persuaded that he is pregnant, has
been supposed by all Dryden's editors
to be modelled on a certain Dr. Ed-
ward Felling, about whom George
Steevens tells a similar anecdote in a
note on a line in The Rape of the Lock.
In a note entitled Dr. Felling, Dr. Pell
and Dryden's Lord Nonsuch, contri-
buted to MLR, Frank Harper Moore
gives good reasons for supposing that
Steevens confused Felling with an-
other divine, Dr. John Pell, described
by Aubrey as 'melancholic'. Both on
chronological and other grounds it
seems likely that Steevens's anecdote
must refer to Pell and that it was he
and not Felling who served as the
model for Lord Nonsuch.

Dry den and Juvenal's Grandmother
is the piquant title of a note by R. E.
Hughes in NQ, where he points to the
fact that Dryden in his rendering of
the third Satire of Juvenal, seems to
avoid translating the phrase 'aviam
resupinat amici' and renders it, They
with the walls and very floors commit'.
According to Hughes this rendering is
not due to delicacy or prudery on Dry-
den's part, but to the fact that he al-
most certainly used a text that printed
the reading, 'aulam resupinat amici'.

Arthur L. Cook in an article in NQ
drew attention to Two Parallels be-
tween Dryden's 'Wild Gallant' and
Congreve's 'Love for Love'.

Notes giving information concern-
ing Dryden's widow were contributed
to NQ by P. D. M., J. B. Whitmore,
and Charles M. Toase.

Dryden in his line on Shadwell, 'Thy
inoffensive satires never bite' was, ac-

cording to Morris Freedman in A Note
on Milton and Dryden as Satirists con-
tributed to NQ, referring not merely
to the well-known sub -title of Bishop
Hall's Virgldemiarum ('Toothlesse
Satyrs') but also, especially, to Mil-
ton's gibes at Hall in his Apology for
Smectymnuus. Freedman suggests that
Dryden had been making a close study
of Milton's prose works when he wrote
his great satires and, while admitting
the obvious differences, points to the
'neglected resemblances' between the
two poets as satirists.

Charles Norman is the author of
popular American biographies of
Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Dr. John-
son. He has now turned his attention
to John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester,
and has produced a biography of that
poet with a title which gives a fair in-
dication of its contents. 3 Norman's
work is certainly not a contribution to
scholarship. He tells the well-known
story of Rochester's life with numer-
ous picturesque embellishments, and
pads out his work with a kind of
chronique scandaleuse of the Restora-
tion court consisting of much irrele-
vant detail derived from the usual
authorities such as Pepys, Evelyn, De
Grammont's Memoirs, and Burnet's
History. His book can be described
as a sort of modern equivalent of
Thomas Longueville's Rochester and
other Literary Rakes of the Court of
Charles II (1902), and a student of the
history of taste might find food for
reflection in the contrast between the
unctuous moralizing of the Edwardian
collector of gossip and the uninhibited
'sex appeal' which appears on almost
every page of the work of his mid-
twentieth-century counterpart. On the
credit side it should be said that Nor-
man shows some acquaintance with
modern research on his subject and

3 Rake Rochester, by Charles Norman.
New York : Crown Publishers, pp. xii+224.

$3.

150

RESTORATION PERIOD

also with certain 'original sources'.
Unfortunately his book is wholly un-
documented and he makes no acknow-
ledgement whatever of his debt to pre-
vious books and articles on Rochester,
which is very considerable indeed.
Apart from this, the chief fault of the
book is the author's persistent deter-
mination to make his narrative as pic-
turesque as possible without any re-
gard to historical accuracy.

P. Legouis contributed to MLN
Three Notes on Rochester's Poems.
These notes correct and amplify cer-
tain points in the commentary of
Pinto's edition of Rochester's poems
(Routledge, 1953, see YW xxxiv. 214).

In the first note Legouis identifies
the Tlimouth' and 'Mordant' of 1. 37
of Rochester's Farewell respectively
with Charles, Earl of Plymouth, the
King's bastard son, and Charles, Vis-
count Mordant, afterwards the famous
Earl of Peterborough. The substitution
of the reading 'Frazier' for the corrupt
Torreser' by Pinto in 1. 42 is accepted
by Legouis, but he disagrees with
Pinto's identification of 'Frazier' with
the court physician Sir Alexander
Frazer. Legouis argues convincingly
that the reference must be to a woman
and a wife (see 1. 40 of the poem) and
his identification of this 'Frazier' with
Cary or Carry Frazer, daughter of Sir
Alexander and wife of Mordant is al-
most certainly correct. In his second
note Legouis gives good reasons for
supposing that 'the patient Bardash

S y' in the poem called A Satyr is

not, as Pinto supposed, Francis Tal-
bot, eleventh Earl of Shrewsbury, but
his son Charles Talbot, twelfth Earl,
and doubts the correctness of Pinto's
identification of 'Henningham' with
Sir William Heveningham. He believes
that the poem was written after the
'Rose Alley Ambuscade' of December
1679. The third note deals with Tun-
bridge Wells. Here Legouis rejects
Pinto's explanation of *Cobb' in 1. 63

as an allusion to the character in Ben
Jonson but interprets it simply in the
sense of 'A great man, big man, lead-
ing man'. He also expands consider-
ably Pinto's note on 'Importance com-
fortable' in 1. 64. Legouis is mistaken
in his statement that this poem was not
ascribed to Rochester till 1695. The
copy in the Douce MS. 357 at Oxford
is endorsed 'Lord R. fecit Sept. 20. 81'.

A short satiric poem entitled 'A
Young Gentleman, desirous to be a
Minister of State', <&c., is printed
anonymously in a Collection of Poems
on Affairs of State (1689). V. de S.
Pinto in a letter to TLS reported the
existence of a fuller version of this
poem in a manuscript miscellany
numbered 71 A in the Duke of Port-
land's Collection deposited in the
Library of the University of Notting-
ham where it is attributed to Roches-
ter. He also pointed to the fact that
there is another copy of this poem in
Br. Mus. Harl. MS. 7135, where it is
also attributed to Rochester. Pinto
printed the version found in 71 A in
full in his letter and annotated it.
While considering that the evidence
of authorship is not sufficient to attri-
bute the poem definitely to Rochester,
he expressed the opinion on grounds
of style and the dating of references
that it was quite possible that Roches-
ter wrote it.

Further correspondence by S. L.
Mackie and Malcolm Elmslie on the
song 'Against Constancy' attributed
by David M. Vieth to Rochester (see
YW xxxiii. 216) appeared in TLS.
Elmslie drew attention to the musical
setting of the song in the manuscript
of Edward Lowe (Br. Mus. Add. MS.
29396, f. 1076).

In Restoration Carnival 41 the Folio
Society has included in a very hand-

4 Restoration Carnival. A Biography-
Anthology of the Courtier Poets, by Vivian
de Sola Pinto. The Folio Society, pp. 255,

185.

RESTORATION PERIOD

151

some volume a selection of poems by
five courtier poets Sir Charles Sed-
ley, Sir George Etherege, Charles
Sackville, Earl of Dorset, John Wil-
mot, Earl of Rochester, and John
Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire
edited with an introduction by V. de
Sola Pinto. The sub-title of the book,
'A Biography- Anthology of the Cour-
tier Poets', is explained by the fact
that in addition to his General Intro-
duction on the nature and background
of the poetry of the Restoration wits,
Pinto has included a short biographi-
cal sketch of each of the poets repre-
sented. He has some significant things
to say about the circumstances in
which these men lived and wrote,
arguing that it is not fair to judge
them entirely by the hostile opinions
of those who regarded them as no
more than immoral pleasure-seekers.
It was not altogether surprising, he
suggests, in view of the unloveliness
of the majority of Cavaliers and
Roundheads, that these young men,
high-spirited, intelligent, wealthy, and
of good education, should turn their
backs on both sides 'and try the ex-
periment of building up a little pagan
paradise of pleasure*. He speaks of
them as 'men of real culture, artists in
living and artists in words', versed in
and fond of ancient and modern litera-
tures, and on friendly terms with con-
temporary men of letters; in addition,
of course, 'they were also Bohemian
men of letters in touch with the life of
the street, the tavern and the coffee-
house, the rough democracy of seven-
teenth-century London'. Pinto goes on
to discuss the nature of their poetry,
the 'combination of irony with lyric
sweetness', the language, that of the
conversation of the educated man of
the day, the lack of ornament, the
unique treatment of the traditions of
courtly pastoral and street ballad.
These Restoration Wits rendered two
great services to English poetry, first

by keeping alive 'the singing voice of
the lyric' in an age of mathematics
and scientific realism, and second by
producing 'a body of informal, un-
conventional verse in an age when
immense prestige was enjoyed by the
dignity and formality of the neo r
classic manner which could easily de-
generate into stiffness, pomposity and
pedantry'. (A. B.)

Marie Neville in a note on Etherege
and Holbein in NQ draws attention to
the lines in Etherege's epistle to Lord
Middleton where he describes a Ratis-
bon beauty as 'a tawdry ill-bred ramp*
and remarks

The Like in England ne'er was seen
Since Holbein drew Hal and his Queen.

The writer of the note points out
that the only picture in which Holbein
painted Henry VIII with one of his
queens was a large work decorating a
wall in the Privy Chamber at White-
hall where Henry was depicted with
Jane Seymour magnificently attired.
This picture was destroyed when the
palace was burnt in 1698. To Middle-
ton, Marie Neville suggests, who by
reason of his court position would be
familiar with it, it 'would have con-
veyed an exact image of demode mag-
nificence'.

A. L. Macleod contributed to MLN
a short article on Nathaniel Lee's Birth
Date. Arguing from some lines in the
Prologue to Const antine the Great, he
places it 'under the fatal sign of Capri-
corn', i.e. between 22 December and
19 January. He also brings forward a
considerable body of evidence to show
that the date of the poet's birth was
1651 and not 1653 or 1654 as hitherto
supposed. Macleod in this article
strangely refers to Lee's father, Dr.
Richard Lee, several times as a bishop.
Actually he never held a bishopric but
was incumbent of Bishops Hatfield,
Herts.

In an article in NQ entitled The
Authorship of the Prologue to Lee's

152

RESTORATION PERIOD

'Constantine the Great' Thomas B.
Stroup argues against the attribution
of the prologue to this play to Otway.
He gives evidence which tends to show
that the theory that Otway was the
author of the prologue adopted by
J. C. Ghosh in his edition of Otway's
Works is mistaken and that the pro-
logue is actually by Lee himself,

In reply to a query by A. L. Caven-
dish, W. H. dialler gave genealogical
information concerning Otway 'sfamily
inNQ.

Thomas P. Havilland in an article
entitled Elkanah Settle and the Heroic
in MLQ describes in detail the way in
which Elkanah Settle turned Made-
leine de Scudery's enormous Turko-
Italian extravaganza', L'lllustre Bassa,
into his heroic tragedy Ibrahim or the
Illustrious Bassa (1674). Havilland's
jaunty style is rather irritating but his
analysis is thorough and certainly
throws light on the conventions of the
heroic romance and the heroic play.

Richard Morton and William M.
Peterson contributed to NQ an article
on Peter the Great and Russia in
Restoration and Eighteenth Century
Drama. They show how these refer-
ences are generally the result of topi-
cal interest, how the earlier ones tend
to be vague and romantic, and how 'a
more realistic point of view began to
prevail after the celebrated visit of
Peter to England in 1698'. Numerous
relevant passages are quoted extend-
ing over a period beginning with the
mid-seventeenth century and ending
with the time of the Napoleonic wars.

P. D. Mundy in a short article in
NQ entitled Aphra Behn, Novelist and
Dramatist (16407-1689) corrects the
information given to Sir Edmund
Gosse by the Vicar of Wye for his
DNB article on Aphra Behn, which
was hailed as the 'discovery of the
birthplace and parentage of Aphra
Behn*. Mundy has discovered that the
vicar's statement that there was an

entry of baptisms of Ayf ara and Peter,
children of John and Amy Johnson,
under the date 1 July 1 640 is incorrect.
There are no baptisms of persons with
the name of Johnson between 1631
and 1665. There is, however, under the
date given by the vicar an entry of
the baptism of Ayfara and Peter, the
children of John and Mary Amis. Un-
fortunately the vicar did not notice
that these two children died and were
buried within a week of their baptisms
so 'Ayfara' cannot be identified with
Aphra Behn. Mundy quotes Gosse's
statement that he derived his informa-
tion that Aphra Behn was a daughter
to a barber who formerly lived at Wye
in Kent from a note in a manuscript
book by Lady Winchilsea the poetess,
which belonged to Gosse. The book
was sold to Dobell who sold it to a
purchaser whose identity he cannot
recall. Mundy also discusses other
statements in Gosse's article concern-
ing Aphra Behn's parentage, early life,
and alleged residence in Surinam. He
is Inclined to place most reliance on
Lady Winchilsea's statement that
Aphra Behn's father was a barber,
and formerly resident at Wye in Kent'.
The bicentenary of Sir Hans
Sloane's death was celebrated in 1953
by articles in various periodicals,
broadcasts, exhibitions in London and
Dublin and also by several publica-
tions noticed in YW xxxiv. 221, 222.
These included the excellent biography
by G. R. de Beer published under the
auspices of the Trustees of the British
Museum. Another biography of Sloane
by E. St. John Brooks, a graduate of
Trinity College, Dublin, where Sloane
held an honorary degree in medicine,
has now appeared. 5 St. John Brooks
states in his Preface that he aims at
'giving a more comprehensive esti-
mate of Sloane and his achievement'

5 Sir Hans Shane, The Great Collector
and his Circle, by E. St. John Brooks. The
Batchworth Press, pp. 234. 18s.

RESTORATION PERIOD

153

than that presented by 'Dr. de Beer's
scholarly study'. He has certainly
made an exhaustive study of the vast
body of extant material relating to
Sloane's life, including his own works
and voluminous correspondence and
the many references to him in the
writings of his contemporaries. Never-
theless St. John Brooks has failed to
produce a vivid or readable book. One
has the impression that he is over-
whelmed by the wealth of his material
and that he has failed to organize it
successfully. Before reaching Hans
Sloane at all the reader has to wade
through pages of Ulster history and
genealogy dealing with the O'Neills,
the Hamiltons, under whose patron-
age the Sloanes came to Ireland, and
the Bailies, into which family the
mother of Hans married after his
father's death. Later chapters like
those entitled 'Friends and Acquain-
tances', 'Letters to Ray and Richard-
son', and 'Family Letters' read like
transcripts of notebooks in which the
author has recorded miscellaneous
material for which he cannot find any
other suitable place. His own judge-
ments are generally trite and undis-
tinguished and the most vivid parts
of the book are to be found in the
quotations, such as the admirable
sketch of Sloane in his old age by Mrs.
Pilkington quoted on pp. 211, 212,
which St. John Brooks dismisses con-
temptuously as a 'spiteful portrait'.
However, although this book is not
nearly so readable as that of de Beer,
it is certainly valuable as a work of
reference because of the wealth of
material that it contains. It is admir-
ably produced and illustrated and has
an excellent index.

Joseph Glanville has attracted much
attention in recent years as a writer
whose works reflect with remarkable
clarity the 'climate of opinion' (his
own famous phrase of the Restora-
tion). Jackson I. Cope devotes a solid

and well-documented article of twenty-
six pages in PMLA to a searching ex-
amination of his thought and style.
Cope's main argument is that Glan-
ville is essentially a 'religious and at
times theological apologist for the
Anglican settlement'. His thought is
shown as a continuation of that of
Hooker's great work, which found in
the 'Law of Reason' a principle en-
abling the Church of England to steer
a course avoiding the errors both of
Rome and of Geneva. Glanville used
this principle to combat both the Puri-
tan 'enthusiasts' and the Romanist
fideists. He found allies in the scien-
tists of the Royal Society, whose dis-
coveries seemed to reveal an ordered
universe. 'Hooker's path to Eternal
Law through Reason's mastery of
"Nature's Law" is still to be seen in
Glanville's universe of "Geometrical
Justice", but Hooker's mystic overtone
to the rational universe, "the participa-
tion of God himself", leaves no trace
in the Restoration Anglican.' For
Glanville the new science was a philo-
sophic pia and Cope shows how Glan-
ville makes use of it in polemics with
Puritans, atheists, and Hobbesians.
The last section of the article deals
briefly with Glanville's practice and
dicta in matters of style which Cope
finds to be closely connected with his
Anglican apologetics. The simplifica-
tion of prose style in Restoration Eng-
land is shown to be due in a large
measure to the 'anti-enthusiasm' of
Restoration Anglicanism, which is,
however, closely interwoven with the
scientific movement. The plainness
palled at a later stage and Cope shows
how Glanville redefined 'Wit' in 1678
in a way that obviously prefigures the
'true wif of the Augustans.

On the occasion of the bicentenary
of Sir Isaac Newton's death in 1927 a
description by D. E. Smith of an un-
published notebook of Newton ap-
peared in a memorial volume edited

154

RESTORATION PERIOD

by W. J. Greenstreet. The notebook
now in the Pierpont Morgan Library
in New York contains among other
items a scheme for reformed spelling.
This scheme is reproduced in trans-
cription by Ralph W. Elliott with a
short introductory article entitled
Isaac Newton as Phonetician in MLR.
According to Elliott the contents of
the notebook extend over a period of
several years up to 1661 or 1662 cover-
ing Newton's last years at King's
School, Grantham, and his first year
at Cambridge. The article gives an
account of the interest in phonetics
and linguistics in the mid-seventeenth
century and connects Newton's scheme
with such works on the subject as
those of Urquhart, Dalgarno, Wil-
kins, and Wallis. Newton's scheme,
however, seems to have a great deal
of originality. It is of interest as an
early attempt to produce a phonetic
alphabet on scientific lines, as giving
evidence for certain contemporary
pronunciations and also of Newton's
amazing versatility. Elliott shows that
some of the pronunciations recorded
certainly reflect Lincolnshire dialect
usage. He considers that these notes
'form a kind of private exercise' left
unfinished when Newton's attention
turned to 'mathematical and scientific
matters'. It may be noticed that the
notes include not only lists of sounds
in Newton's phonetic alphabet with
contemporary spellings, but also a
short account of the way in which the
speech sounds are made and a tran-
script of a short letter in the phonetic
alphabet.

The theory and practice of prose
translation from the French in late-
seventeenth- and early-eighteenth-
century England is the subject of A
Note on the Standard of English
Translations from the French contri-
buted to NQ by Margaret Turner.
She examines and compares a number
of translations from Fontenelle, La

Bruyere, and other authors, quotes the
statements on the art of translation
made by the English translators and
comes to the conclusion that 'the
public on the whole was indifferently
served' by them, but that, neverthe-
less, there was a large public ready to
buy these translations as shown both
by the number of alternative versions
of the same books which appeared
and the fact that even poor ones ran
into numerous editions.

Readers of the second part of The
Pilgrim's Progress will remember the
dosing of Christiana's little boy Mat-
thew after he had eaten the fruit from
Beelzebub's orchard. It will be re-
called that the cure included the taking
of certain pills 'ridding him of his
Gripes'. Roger Sharrock in a note in
NQ entitled Matthew's Pills and 'The
Pilgrim's Progress", points out that the
association of Matthew with pills had
a topical point as 'Matthew's powders'
and 'Matthew's pills' were celebrated
remedies in seventeenth-century Eng-
land. He quotes a pamphlet by Richard
Mathew on his pills called The Un-
learned Alchemist, published in 1662
and draws attention to parallels be-
tween passages in this pamphlet and
Bunyan's description of the sufferings
and cure of the boy Matthew.

The Augustan Reprint Society has
added to its excellent series Selections
from Seventeenth Century Songbooks
edited with an Introduction by Jeni-
fer W. Angel.* The book includes
selections from nine songbooks, the
earliest being William Byrd's Choice
Ayres & Songs (1611) and the latest
George Vanbrughe's Mirth and Har-
mony (c. 1713). The central place in
the collection is occupied by the selec-

6 The Augustan Reprint Society. Selec-
tions from Seventeenth Century Songbooks
with an Introduction by Jenifer W. AngeL
Publication 46 Los Angeles : William Clark
Memorial Library, Univ. of California,
pp. 38.

RESTORATION PERIOD

155

tion from John Playford's Choice
Ay res and Songs (1681), so it is con-
venient to record this pamphlet in our
Restoration chapter. Miss Angel's ex-
cellent short Introduction draws atten-
tion to changes in poetic and musical
traditions in the century covered by
the collection, pointing to the swing of
the 'pendulum of morality' from Wil-
liam Byrd's instructive and captivating
'Who Looks May Leap' to Richard
Leveridge's cynical and theatrical
Truth'. The student of Restoration
literature and music will be particu-
larly interested in the setting by Dr.
John Blow of Thomas Flatman's 'Pas-
toral Elegy on the Earl of Rochester'.
At the end of the pamphlet are simpli-
fied arrangements of songs by Byrd
and Lawes prepared with the assis-
tance of Mr. Wesley Kuhnle.

Various pieces of information con-
cerning the Hungarian chemist 'Mr.
Uniades' mentioned by Aubrey were
contributed to NQ by Elsie Duncan

Jones, E. S. de Beer, and Dennis Davi-
son. Letters giving further informa-
tion about 'Mr. Uniades' by Dennis
Davison, F. Sherwood Taylor, C. H.
Josten, Edmund Esdaile, and G. H.
Turner appeared in TLS.

Anna Maria Crino, in addition to
the important work noticed at the
beginning of this chapter, has con-
tributed to The English Miscellany
[Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, Rome
(Published for the British Council)] an
interesting short article in Italian on
La Visita a Firenze del Bizarro A ttore
Comico Joseph Haynes. This article
contains a biographical sketch of
Haynes and Signorina Crino has made
good use of allusions to him in the
correspondence preserved in the State
Archives of Florence, where he spent
some time in the service of the Grand
Duke. The article is illustrated by two
reproductions of pictures of Haynes
from The Works of Thomas Brown
of Shefnal (1735).

XII. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

By EDITH J. MORLEY

IN Pope's Own Miscellany (YW xvi.
286-7) and in New Light on Pope with
some Additions to his Poetry, hitherto
unknown (YW xxx. 183-4), Norman
Ault published the first-fruits of what
were to total twenty years' devotion
to the establishment of the canon of
Pope's Minor Poems. 1 Unfortunately
he did not live to see the appearance
of the volume in the Twickenham
Pope, now completed by his friend
and fellow worker in this field, John
Butt, the general editor of the series.
Butt is more cautious in ascribing
doubtful poems to Pope's authorship
and less willing to recognize stylistic
tests than was Ault and the final deci-
sion as to whether a poem was to be
admitted to the canon has necessarily
rested with him. But since the doubt-
ful poems are printed in an appendix
and all the evidence is given, the occa-
sional exclusion of the possibly genu-
ine is a matter of less moment, espe-
cially as nothing of importance is in
question and the reader is able to judge
for himself if the editor has made the
right decision.

The main part of the volume, how-
ever, is concerned with the shorter
poems which Pope acknowledged, and
to have them now assembled in chrono-
logical order and in the astonishing
numbers of existing manuscript and
printed versions which have been un-
earthed is the chief virtue of this edi-
tion of the Minor Poems. Never before
has it been so easy to realize the de-
velopment of Pope's poetic powers,
the variety of his metres and of his

1 Minor Poems, by Alexander Pope.
Twickenham Pope. Vol. vi, ed. Norman
Ault. Completed John Butt. Methuen and
Yale U.P. pp. xxii+492. 45*.

moods and range. There can be no ex-
cuse in future for repetition of the
nineteenth-century gibe that Pope
used only the closed heroic couplet or
that he 'made poetry a mere mechanic
art'. His greatness is made abundantly
apparent to all who are capable of
appreciating the many differing kinds
of emotion and technical skill in their
expression to be found in his work.

In Mythopoeic Activity in 'The
Rape of the Lock' (ELH) Rebecca P.
Parkin shows that 'divinity in varying
degrees postulated of almost every-
thing of Belinda, the Baron, the Scis-
sors, the sparkling Cross, the Lap-Dog,
the Petticoat and the Lock, as well as
of Love, Fate, Jove, and the Sylphs and
Gnomes with all pertaining to them.

The offprint of John Butt's Warton
Lecture 2 includes six facsimile repro-
ductions of passages in the Morgan
and Huntington autograph manu-
scripts of Pope's Epistle to Arbuthnot.
These are used to show how the growth
of fifty-five poems known to exist in
his handwriting may be studied and
Pope's methods of composition be
examined. Butt gives in an appendix
a list of Pope's autograph manuscripts
in approximate order of composition,
with present location, and makes out
a good case for their detailed study as
a guide to Pope's ways of perfecting
his style.

The aim of Ursula Urner's thesis on
Pope 3 is to examine the relation of his

2 Pope's Poetical Manuscripts, by John
Butt. Warton Lecture on English Poetry.
Proc Brit Acad, vol. xl. O.U.P. pp. 23-39 -f-
6 full-page plates. 5s.

3 Alexander Pope und die klassisch-
lateinische Literatur, by Ursula Urner.
Schweizer Anglistische Arbeiten, vol. 36.
Bern : Francke Verlag. pp. 166. Sw. Fr. 12.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

157

work to Latin literature and to deter-
mine, as far as may be, its influence
upon him. She begins by a brief
account of the importance of Latin
literature to the outlook of the time
and then proceeds to a detailed dis-
cussion of Classical Themes in Pope's
Poetry, subdividing this chapter into
the headings 'Natur und Stimmung',
'Kunst-Theorie', 'Mensch', 'Person
des Dichters'. The third chapter deals
with the Latin Elements in Pope's
Style, the fourth with his Translations,
and the fifth with the Technique of the
Translations. Finally, in a brief sum-
mary, she concludes that Tope hat mit
den Alten . . . gemeinsam: die Suche
nach Mass und Ziel, die Bekampfung
der Widernaturlichkeit und Verkehrt-
heit auf allgemein menschlichem und
auf kunstlerischem Gebiet . . . Der
formbewuBten lateinischen Literatur
bedient er sich, um seine sprachliche
Eigenartzu sttitzen'. Miss Urner's bib-
liography shows that she has consulted
all the authorities but she has also
something fresh to add to the treat-
ment of her subject which justifies her
choice of theme.

E. L. Ruhe contributes a note on
Pope's Hand in Thomas Birch's Ac-
count of Gay to RES, which includes
*a hitherto unpublished and unknown
letter of Pope's' copied by Birch and
relating to his biography of Gay. He
has carried out all Pope's suggestions
in the published Life.

John Sparrow writes on Pope's 'An-
thologia' Again in PQ.

G. Wilson Knight's book On the
Genius of Pope* falls into chapters
entitled respectively 'Diction and Doc-
trine', The Vital Flame', 'An Inter-
pretative Study, Symbolic Eternities',
*An Introduction to The Temple of
Fame", 'The Book of Life: on Byron's
Adulation of Pope', 'Afterthoughts*.

4 Laureate of Peace: On the Genius of
Alexander Pope, by G. Wilson Knight.
Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. viii+188. 21,y.

These vary considerably in importance
but all testify to the author's admira-
tion for Pope and delight in his poetry.
The second and third sections are those
which are most valuable but all suffer
from obscurity and bad writing.
Knight's meaning is often hard to dis-
cover and sometimes not to be found,
nor does he ever provide easy reading.
Yet his discussion of The Essay on
Man and his claims for Pope as a
thinker contain much that requires
wider recognition while his examina-
tion of The Temple of Fame and its
'symbolisms' shows his critical method
at its best.

Ian Jack stimulates interest and in-
spires thought by his valuable essay
on Pope, 5 which is a revaluation of the
poet by one who knows and appre-
ciates the man and his work as few
critics have done. Even those most
familiar with Pope's poetry will find
fresh aspects presented in these pages
and not least in Jack's discussion of
Pope's 'apprenticeship', of 'the values
on which his work is based', and of
the 'depth of emotion' often to be
found in it The 'Select Bibliography'
provides an up-to-date guide to fur-
ther study.

In Patterns of Imagery in Pope's
'Arbuthnof, Elias F. Mengel (PMLA)
discovers five main varieties of ima-
gery in the poem which help to give it
unity.

Hugo M. Reichard discusses The
Love Affair in Pope's 'Rape of the
Lock' (PMLA), wishing to show that
it makes 'the plot of the poem a con-
test of wiles between commanding per-
sonalities an uninhibited philanderer
and an invincible flirt'.

Lord Halifax in Gildon's 'New
Rehearsal', by G. L. Anderson (PQ)
identifies the character of Sir Indo-
lent with Lord Halifax. The New

5 Pope, by Ian Jack. Longmans, for the
British Council and National Book League,
pp. 35. 2s.

158

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Rehearsal was one of the causes for
Pope's attack on Gildon.

W. H. Bond has re-edited Smart's
Jubilate Agno 6 in what seems likely
to prove the definitive form with an
explanation of what has hitherto ap-
peared inexplicable in its construction
and the problems it presents. In JW
xxxi. 274 reference was made to an
article by Bond in the HLB in which
he described the fragments of Smart's
manuscript now preserved there and
showed that the poem was influenced
by the parallelisms of Hebrew poetry.
Now he follows up the article with a
complete edition of what remains of
the poem, arranging fragments as far
as possible in order and proving that
the 'Let' and Tor' passages correspond
and are intended to be read as an anti-
phony. He has discovered that the
remaining manuscript falls into five
sections, and that the *Let' verses are
impersonal and derive from Smart's
intimate knowledge of the Bible and
of natural science while the Tor' pas-
sages are personal and refer to his own
bitter experiences and particularly to
his longing for God. Smart was clearly
struggling to understand his position
in the universe and to reconcile know-
ledge and experience. Jubilate Agno
is shown to be not a 'song from Bed-
lam' (the title given it by W. F. Stead
in his important edition of 1939) but
a definite stage in the poet's progress
towards his masterpiece, A Song to
David, one of the greatest English
religious lyrics.

Christopher Smart's Heresy (MLN)
is an interesting discussion by Karma
Side of his poem on the Holy Trinity
(Hymn XVI) and his triad of 'man,
soul, and angel'.

A magnificent tribute 7 to the work

6 Jubilate Agno, by Christopher Smart.
Re-edited from the Original Manuscript by
W. H. Bond. Hart-Davis, pp. 172. 15s.

7 Studies in Art and Literature -for Belle
da Costa Greene, ed. Dorothy Miner.

and personality of the late Director of
the Pierpont Morgan Library is more
fully dealt with in Chapter I, n. 21. In
this chapter only the papers con-
cerned with eighteenth-century writers
are considered and in the order in
which they appear in the book. The
first of these studies is among the
group dealing with Prints and Draw-
ings and is by Geoffrey L. Keynes
(p. 202) who describes Blake's Vision
of the Circle of the Life of Man and
relates the picture to a pencil sketch
in the Pierpont Morgan Library 'which
has come to be known as The River
of Oblivion'. Keynes gives an account
of the discovery of the picture at Arl-
ington Court in 1947 when the house
came into the possession of the
National Trust and, by comparison
with 'the lovely pencil drawing', shows
that this must be the first design of the
painting. He does not attempt a full
interpretation of the symbolism, but
his description of 'the general purport
of the design' and of the close analogy
between drawing and painting ade-
quately proves his contention. The
text of his argument is illustrated by
full-page black-and-white reproduc-
tions of both sketch and picture and
by three other water-colours in the
Library in which there is comparable
symbolism.

In the section dealing with Litera-
ture and Autograph Manuscripts,
Herbert Davis (p. 433) discusses The
Manuscripts of Swift's 'Directions to
Servants'. The original London and
Dublin editions of the book were not
printed until the year of Swift's death
and then from a manuscript which had
somehow come into Faulkner's pos-
session and was not the Abbotsford
corrected copy now in the library of
the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Davis shows that 'it is now possible to
prove that he [Faulkner] had at least

Princeton and OJJ.P. pp. xviii+502. $25.
10.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

159

some' of Swift's autograph drafts of
the Directions as far as he had com-
pleted it before his death. This is pos-
sible owing to the purchase in 1946 by
Lord Rothschild of fourteen pages of
the corrected manuscript discovered
among the Normanton papers bought
at Sotheby's sale in October of that
year. Davis prints facsimiles from the
Directions to the Butler and to the
Cook and demonstrates that some
of the variants which occur only in
Faulkner's revised edition of the work
in 1751 are due to Swift's correction
found in this incomplete autograph
manuscript.

Also in this section, Shane Leslie
(p. 445) describes The Swift Manu-
scripts in the Morgan Library with a
reproduction of one of the three folio
pages of the autograph manuscript of
Apollo to the Dean to illustrate his
commentary. This manuscript is of
particular importance because, in ad-
dition to old spellings, it represents
Swift's bigger cursive script, showing
clearly the shape of the various letters.
'Many of Swift's cursive letters are
unmistakable, such as "s", "d" or "p".
But it is the capitals, which afford the
easiest and most obvious clues.' 'Swift
varied the size of his script, though he
clung to the shapes.' The 'hoard of let-
ters and poems' in the Morgan Library
is 'brilliantly genuine', with no example
of the so-called 'disguised' handwriting
or of the forgeries which often pass
for Swift's manuscripts in other collec-
tions.

The final eighteenth-century study
(p. 449) is by the Earl of Ilchester who
deals with Some Pages Torn from the
Last Journals of Horace Walpole,
hitherto 'completely unknown' since
they came to light only when 'a num-
ber of loose sheets and packets
amongst the Holland House manu-
scripts' were evacuated when the
house was destroyed early in the
recent war. 'The subject of these frag-

ments, of date December 1773, in
Horace's handwriting, is a virulent
attack upon the celebrated Charles
James Fox, born in 1749, second son
of Walpole's erstwhile friend, Henry
Fox, by then created Baron Holland,
and upon the methods which the latter
had employed to liquidate part of his
two sons' vast gambling debts. In the
same parcel was an illuminating me-
morandum in the writing of Henry
Richard Vassal!, third Lord Holland,
Charles Fox's nephew, closely examin-
ing the whole statement and contradict-
ing many of the accusations thus
brought against his grandfather and
uncle.'

Lord Ilchester gives a full account
of the history of the manuscripts in
order to explain their elimination
'from their proper place in Walpole's
narrative' and also emphasizes the
fact that his judgements of his con-
temporaries were 'unreliable' and at
times 'biased' by 'private animosities'.
In this case Lord Ilchester shows that
Walpole's 'savage attack' on Fox was
unjustified. His whole essay is of out-
standing interest to all readers of Wal-
pole's letters.

The First Draft of Percy's 'Reliques'
by Albert B. Friedman (PMLA\ the
name given by him to a hitherto over-
looked foolscap sheet preserved at
Harvard, is here printed in full. The
writer's intention is to show that 'the
lists reproduced and annotated . . .
must hereafter be the starting-point
for any detailed study of the compila-
tion of the greatest of ballad books'.

Erich Konig attempts, in his study
of Young's earlier writings, 8 to deter-
mine how far these show progressive
thought-development and lead up to
Night Thoughts, a poem which has

8 Edward Young, Versuch einer gedank-
lichen Interpretation auf Grund der Frith-
werke, by Erich Konig. Bern : Francke Ver-
lag. Swiss Studies in English. No. 37. pp.
130. Sw. Fr. 8.50. -

160

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

been diversely interpreted in its liter-
ary and religious aspects as well as in
its bearing on the poet's personal de-
velopment. Konig confines himself as
far as possible to an examination of
Young's personality as revealed in his
early work and to the search for a
'gedankliche Struktur' which may
serve to explain and reconcile discre-
pancies in his chef d'czuvre. He con-
cludes that Young's 'unlogische, kom-
plexe, gedankliche Struktur erhalt sich
mit erstaunlicher Konstanz durch fast
fiinfzig Jahre hindurch' and that no
important change in it is to be dis-
covered.

There has been no volume dealing
specifically with The Rural Muse 9
since the excellent edition of Southey's
Lives and Works of the Uneducated
Poets by J. S. Childers in 1925 (YW
vi. 273-4) so that the time was ripe for
a more modern survey of the field.
Rayner Unwin covers rather different
ground from Southey and interprets
the word 'peasant' freely according to
his own inclination. For in fact, as he
says, The final judgment on who shall
qualify as a peasant-poet must rest
with the individual reader 5 since the
word s peasant' is itself archaic in Eng-
land and refers to no generally ac-
cepted social class. If therefore he
chooses to include Thomson and
Crabbe among his eighteenth-century
poets of the country-side, that can be
justified by their influence on descrip-
tive poetry by virtue of their know-
ledge of nature and their first-hand
acquaintance with the everyday life
of the village and of the agricultural
labourer. If he confines himself to
English writers and excludes Burns
and Hogg or the Welsh bards, that
again is a matter for his personal deci-
sion. The gallery of eighteenth-cen-
tury poetasters ... are random por-

9 The Rural Muse. Studies in the Peasant
Poetry of England, by Rayner Unwin. Allen
& Unwin. pp. 202. 15s.

traits: there are many others that could
equally well be substituted. The pur-
pose ... is to represent untrained
poetic endeavour at that time, and . . .
to be selective must inevitably be in-
vidious.*

Unwin has of course not confined
himself to one century but, apart from
John Taylor, he does not deal with
earlier writers except in passing, and
Barnes, Clare, Kirke White, Alfred
Williams, and Woodhouse do not be-
long to this section of YW. The main
parts of The Rural Muse deal with
eighteenth-century versifiers and what
he has to say about Duck, Falconer,
Ann Yearsley, Bloomfield, and the rest
is of lively interest while the copious
quotations from their writings enable
the reader to form his own opinion of
their work.

TLS, 2 July, contains an article en-
titled Crabbe in Aldeburgh which
describes the exhibition held there as
part of the bi-centenary celebration of
the poet's birth on 24 December 1754.
The exhibition was intended as a guide
to his work and contained enough
material to show his versatility and
interest in natural history as well as in
life and literature. Special praise is
given to the Catalogue of the exhibi-
tion as a 'model of its kind' and of
lasting value to collectors' as a biblio-
graphical reference work at the 'modest
cost' of 2s.

Burns into English, 10 by William
Kean Seymour, is an attempt by the
writer to obviate the use of a glossary
by those who use the standard or other
dialect of the language. Burns uses
'upwards of twelve hundred dialect
words which are either peculiar to the
Scottish Lowlands or have meanings
distinct from similar English word-
forms. In addition, he employed an

10 Burns into English, Renderings of
Selected Dialect Poems of Robert Burns, by
William Kean Seymour. Allan Wingate.
pp. 160. 135. 6d.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

161

extensive compromise vocabulary of
near-English words. . . . The direct
result for modern readers, as for
readers of his first collection, Poems
Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Kil-
marnock, 1786), is that every edition
of Burns' [si c] Poems must include a
Glossary.' The present writer would
much prefer to do so, particularly
when the necessary explanations are
at the side or foot of each page, rather
than to run the risk of a total distor-
tion of the poet's meaning as, for ex-
ample, in The Jolly Beggars where S I
held awa' to the school' is rendered 'I
kept away from the school' or in The
Twa Dogs where

For thae frank, rantin', ramblin' billies
Fient haet o' them's ill-hearted fellows

becomes

For these wild, noisy, rambling sparks,
The devil take their crazy larks !

Admittedly Seymour's versions are
generally dexterous and often very
happy, but poetry must always lose
by translation and this is as true of
Lallans Scotch as of a foreign tongue.
The originals are preferable to the best
renderings and can be understood by
anyone who is ready to take a little
trouble in order to obtain great enjoy-
ment.

Maurice Lindsay's life of Robert
Burns 11 claims to be the first modern
full-length biography written in Great
Britain which sets out to dissociate
the man from the legends that have
obscured his personality by various
types of falsification. Lindsay pays
due tribute to Snyder ( YW xvii. 227-8)
and De Lancey Ferguson (YW xx.
141-2), whose works are obtainable
only in American editions, and to
more recent studies of various aspects
of the poet's life or works, but he con-
cludes that no reliable account has
been available for the general reader

11 Robert Burns, by Maurice Lindsay.
MacGibbon & Kee. pp. viii+292. 18s.
B5641

of 'a human tale that is of absorbing
interest'. This he sets out to tell, in-
cluding the revaluation made possible
by the detailed investigations of his
predecessors. Lindsay presents a read-
able and in the main a well-balanced
picture of the poet and his background
with copious quotations that illustrate
the points made. If the author occa-
sionally makes slips in his statements
(e.g. when he says that Holy Willie's
Prayer was first published in 1796 in-
stead of 1789) and is sometimes rather
aggressively Scottish in his attitude,
he has nevertheless succeeded on the
whole in the task which he set himself.

The title-page of David Erdman's
book 12 indicates its limitation. Blake
was not primarily concerned with the
history of his own times. His main in-
terest, especially in later life, lay in the
spiritual and it is in that sphere that
he reached his highest stature. He was
perhaps the greatest religious genius
who has ever written in English and
his visions and prophecies for the most
part deal with man's relation to eter-
nity not to time. Consequently it is
misleading to concentrate on the less
important and vital aspect of his work
to the exclusion of what he held to be
fundamental.

That said, it is right to acknowledge
Erdman's great contribution to our
knowledge of what Blake derived from
the impact of contemporary events
and personages, particularly in such
early works as The French Revolution
and the Island on the Moon. For Erd-
man is not content with general state-
ments about the relation of Blake's
work to the Enlightenment, the French
Revolution, or the Industrial Revolu-
tion, but avowedly bases his investi-
gation on the poet's own dictum that
'General Knowledge is Remote Know-

12 Blake: Prophet against Empire. A
Poet's Interpretation of the History of his
Own Times, by David V. Erdman. Prince-
ton and O.U.P. pp. xx+504. 60^.

162

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

ledge'. Erdman, therefore, does his best
to view contemporary life through the
newspapers, political speeches, prints
and paintings of the day, and to dis-
cover the sources of Blake's allusions,
symbols, prophecies, and visions. The
results are often both surprising and
convincing and the historical approach
is shown to be abundantly worth while.
Erdman is to be congratulated on the
results of his detailed and laborious
task for he has succeeded in discover-
ing much that has been overlooked by
those who have been bent only on the
interpretation of Blake's symbolism
and myths or on his literary and philo-
sophical sources. The influence on his
work of the political and historical
happenings of his own time can never
again be ignored by anyone who
wishes to obtain a fair conception of
the sources upon which Blake drew.
The claim is justified that 'this is the
first attempt to define Blake's particu-
lar way of assimilating eighteenth-
century political and artistic traditions
and to follow his particular reading of
the events and views of his age as they
appeared before him with daily shock
and appeal'. Erdman has achieved
what he set out to do and his aim was
worth the labour expended in its
attainment.

In PMLA George Mills Harper dis-
cusses The Neo-Platonic Concept of
Time in Blake's Prophetic Books and
shows that 'in the terms and symbols
with which he expresses [his] doctrine
. . . the source of his knowledge is the
translations of Thomas Taylor'.

Bronowski's William Blake, A Man
without a Mask 13 is a revised version
of the book which was noticed in YW
xxiv. 176, 177, and there is little to add
to what was then said except apprecia-
tion of the excellence of the cheap
Pelican reproduction. This includes
sixteen illustrations whereas the earlier

13 William Blake, by J. Bronowski. A
Pelican Book. pp. 218. 2s. 6d

edition contained only six. The other
additions are to the Preface and to the
notes. The changes in the text serve to
bring the book up to date and are of
a minor nature.

In RES H. M. Margoliouth de-
scribes Blake's Drawings for Young's
'Night Thoughts' which occupied the
painter for some eighteen months be-
tween 1795 and 1797 but have not pre-
viously been examined in detail. There
are 537 of these water-colours, but
457 of them are unavailable to those
who have not seen the originals, now
in the British Museum in the single
copy of the book which is known to
survive. Margoliouth shows the im-
portance of the water-colours in the
study of Blake's development as well
as for their intrinsic value.

The Apparition of Mrs. Veal: A
Neglected Account by Rodney M.
Baine (PMLA) describes a longer and
more detailed' report of the same
affair as that dealt with by Defoe. This
is by the Rev. Thomas Payne, who
'adds considerable information con-
cerning the apparition' and makes pos-
sible the identification of almost all
the dramatis personae in the story.
Baine reprints Payne's version in full
and compares it in detail with that of
Defoe to which he owed a great debt
though it is clear that he also had
other sources. There are no fewer than
five accounts of the apparition now
known, but these are the two chief.
All of them claim to rest on Mrs. Bar-
grave's testimony and on the fact 'that
the story was communicated while
Mrs. Veal was supposed to be living'.

The same author (in PQ) in an ar-
ticle entitled Defoe and Mrs. Bar-
grave's Story asks whether Defoe was
actually the writer of A True Relation
of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal.
After reviewing the evidence for and
against, he concludes that 'it can now
be definitely asserted' that Defoe first
published the story, but that the whole

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

163

of it, even the details, derived from the
'feverish imagination 1 of Mrs, Bar-
grave, though Defoe dramatized and
made it famous.

The object of a study of Daniel
Defoe 14 'is to establish character and
motive in him; to relate the works to
the man, and both to the times in
which he lived' for the author sees in
him 'the ancestor of the English novel'
and 'the first full-time English journa-
list'. Fitzgerald does not pretend to
add to the facts known about Defoe
but to reinterpret them. The Biblio-
graphy which is included in his book
shows that he is well acquainted with
the details of Defoe's life and with pre-
vious criticisms of his work as well as
with historical accounts of the period
in which he lived. What Fitzgerald adds
is his own view of Defoe's life as a
study in conflict within the man him-
self and with the revolutionary politi-
cal and economic conditions of his
day which were finally to establish the
new social order in which capitalism
and the middle class replaced the aris-
tocratic feudal system.

It is to be hoped that no cuts in
grants to the British Council will cur-
tail the admirable series of essays on
Writers and their Work than which
no better introductions to the chief
British men of letters can well be
imagined, judged by the three speci-
mens sent for notice in this section of
YW.

James Sutherland's Defoe 15 in some
twenty-five pages manages to compress
an account of the man's life, character,
and writings which compels under-
standing and sympathy. The Puritan
moralist, adventurer, 'tradesman by
choice and a writer almost by force of
circumstances' is shown also as a man

14 Daniel Defoe: A Study in Conflict, by
Brian Fitzgerald. Seeker & Warburg, pp.
248. 18^.

15 Defoe, by James Sutherland. Long-
mans, for the British Council and National
Book League, pp. 36. 2s.

of genius and a dreamer who knows,
and can make us know and love, every-
day men and women whether in ordin-
ary or extraordinary surroundings.

Defoe's Hand in 'A Journal of the
Earl of Marr's Proceedings' (1716) is
the subject of a paper by J. R. Moore
in HLQ> In this he shows that the In-
troduction to the Journal 'must have
been written by Daniel Defoe' and
'that the Journal itself was a forgery',
'first put together by several different
hands for the Earl of Marr himself.
Moore reveals the original intention
of the tract and how Defoe subse-
quently used it for the entirely differ-
ent purpose of propaganda on behalf
of the Hanoverians and against Marr
and the Jacobites.

Anyone who reads Landa's account
of Swift and the Church of Ireland 16
must share his admiration for Swift's
continuous attention to the daily
duties of his position as Dean and a
clergyman of the Anglican Church
that 'gained for the Establishment re-
spect, regard and appreciation', and
the affection of ordinary men and
women in a city in which the majority
of the inhabitants were not of his
faith. It is not the least of Landa's
merits to lay stress on this aspect of
Swift's achievement for the Church as
well as on his more spectacular cham-
pionship in such affairs as the First
Fruits and the 'clipping and circum-
cising the Church's Property' when-
ever and wherever opportunity pre-
sented itself. Landa is not concerned
with Swift's religious convictions nor
with the motives which led him to take
Orders except in so far as they re-
sulted in his career as a clergyman.
But he studies that career in detail and
relates it to the better-known aspects
of Swift's life and character, present-
ing more fully than has hitherto been
possible, his literary genius and Ms

16 Swift and the Church of Ireland, by
Louis A. Landa. O.U.P. pp. xvi+206. 21s.

164

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

political activities against the back-
ground of ecclesiastical and economic
conditions in his day. Landa's well-
directed research has resulted in a re-
liable book that will be of service to
all who are interested either in Swift
or in the condition of the Irish church
in the eighteenth century.

W. B. Ewald contributes a useful
examination of his satirical methods
in The Masks of Jonathan Swift. 11 A
persona or mask is defined as 'a clear
fictitious character who is represented
as the author of a work (or the spokes-
man of a monologue)' and Ewald is
at pains to distinguish between Swift's
own views and those he attributes to
his personae by a careful analysis of
the individual works chronologically
considered. Swift adopted a variety of
devices in order to preserve his anony-
mity and conceal his personal opinions
which have too often been deduced
from those expressed by his characters
or speakers.

Unfortunately Ewald gives no ade-
quate summary of what he has dis-
covered in particular works though
the final pages of the book contain a
brief note entitled 'Behind the Mask'.
Nor is there an index to assist the
reader to come to his own conclusions.
This is an obvious fault in the con-
struction of his book, but it is equally
clear that his careful study of separate
works is of great assistance in the in-
terpretation of Swift's satire.

In an article entitled 'Animal Ra-
tlonis Capax': A Study of Certain
Aspects of Swift's Imagery (ELH)
Kathleen M. Williams explains his
frequent references to unpleasant phy-
sical qualities in allegorical and satiric
imagery which she claims, 'cannot be
dismissed as examples of a merely
pathological insistence on physical
functions'. To come to terms with the
facts of physical existence is essential

17 The Masks of Jonathan Swift, by W. B.
Ewald, Jr. BlackwelL pp. viii+204. 22s. 6d.

if we are to live a sensible life in touch
with reality, and Swift is continually
trying to bring us back to earth. His
stress on the physical is part of that
attempt.' Miss Williams supports her
theory by detailed examination of cer-
tain of Swiff s poems as well as of
Gulliver's Travels. Her argument is
convincing.

Swift on the Mind: the Myth of
Asepsis, by Walter L Ong (MLQ), is
an examination of 'Swift's concep-
tualizations' and 'his ways of conceiv-
ing psychological operations beyond
those of reason and common sense'.

In Swift and Dr. Eachard (PMLA)
Robert C. Elliott draws attention to
'stylistic affinities' between the two
writers and cites passages that seem
to him 'strikingly parallel'.

Reason in Madness: A Tale of a
Tub, by Harold D. Kelling (PMLA\
maintains in a suggestive examination,
that 'the Tale is an oration against
rhetoric and at the same time an ex-
ample of good rhetoric', 'a work of
general or rhetorical criticism, using
as material the learned and religious
literature of the seventeenth century'.

In PQ James Brown attempts to
reconcile Swift as Moralist, satirist
and Christian. He succeeds in making
a good case for his opinion that Swift
the satirist is not incompatible with
the sincere priest, and that there is no
ground to assume a split personality
in order to account for his use of
satire, which is 'a literary device for
expressing a moral position'.

J. R. Moore answers his question
Was Jonathan Swift a Moderate? (The
South Atlantic Quarterly) by saying
that though Swift claimed to be one
'it would not be easy to justify this
from his writings' or from the opin-
ions of his contemporaries.

In MLR in a note entitled Swift's
First Poem, Irvin Ehrenpreis gives
fresh and convincing evidence of the
correctness of Harold Williams's con-

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

165

tention that Nichols was mistaken in
attributing to Swift the Ode to King
William on his Success in Ireland
which originally appeared in the
Gentleman's Journal. The Ode to the
King, On his Irish Expedition, 146
lines in seven stanzas, is as certainly
the poem to which Swift alluded as
'an Humble Chaplet for the King', 'the
Ode I writ to the King in Ireland'.

Until Peter Smithers undertook the
task, no one had attempted to write a
full-length Life of Joseph Addison 18
and, as we study the bulky volume, we
understand why. For it is clear that
though Smithers has acquired affec-
tion as well as admiration for his pro-
tagonist, Addison was not an attrac-
tive personality. He had many virtues
and great talents; he was a master of
English prose and he was an honest
and hard-working politician in a
period not distinguished by straight
dealing among party men. But with
all his good qualities he did not pos-
sess the charm exercised by many
lesser men who were not equally con-
sistent in their ambitions or their
merits. Addison attained great place
and won great respect, but he had not
the power to inspire love nor was he
himself ever carried away by any
overpowering passion. Though an up-
holder of the Whig Junto he held that
'A man must be excessively stupid, as
well as uncharitable, who believes that
there is no virtue but on his side' and,
in an age which saw the foundation of
party rule and was torn by political
violence, he lamented the 'dreadful
spirit of division' which 'rends a gov-
ernment into two distinct people, and
makes them . . . more averse to one
another than if they were actually two
different nations'. For his own part,
he 'preferred cheerfulness to mirth'
and believed that 'the utmost that we
can hope for in this world is content-

18 The Life of Joseph Addison, by Peter
Smithers. O.U.P. pp. xii+492. 35s.

ment'. Such sentiments are entirely
sensible and reasonable, but complete
self-command is not necessarily en-
dearing to more fallible mortals espe-
cially when combined with self-satis-
faction at their possession. Addison
preached and practised restraint and
good manners with the result that he
was an admired but not an attractive
character. He was too much the 'spec-
tator' of, too little the participator
in, human weaknesses and passions.
Smithers is perhaps a little too much
inclined to gloss over Addison's weak-
nesses and to overstress his good
points, but there is no question of the
success with which the historical im-
portance of his achievement as a poli-
tician in and out of the House of
Commons is unfolded. The writer has
devoted over fourteen years to the
collection of material for his study of
Addison and his book tells us as much
as can be discovered about the man
and his place in the 'polite' society of
his day.

M. J. C. Hodgart (RES) examines
the authorship of The Eighth Volume
of the 'Spectator', concluding that
Addison 'left the day-to-day running
of the paper' to Tickell who had to
find enough copy to make the volume
uniform in size with the first seven
which had been published in 1712 and
1713. Only twenty-four essays were
ascribed to Addison by the editor, but
Hodgart shows that 'it is clear' from
the Tickell MSS. that he had a hand
in many of the other papers which had
been spoiled by the collaboration of
Budgell or Tickell and in which he
therefore did not wish to claim a part.

F. A. Brown, in a paper entitled
Addison's Imagination and the
'Gesellschaft der Mahlern' (MLQ),
examines in detail the indebtedness
of Bodmer and Breitinger to the essays
in the Spectator and the differences
between their conception of imagina-
tion and that of the English writer.

166

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The Augustan Reprint Society con-
tinues its invaluable services to impe-
cunious scholars and sends this year
four numbers (43, 45, 47, and 48) for
notice. Dr. Baillie, 19 like many of his
contemporaries, 'found the origin of
the sublime in man's imaginative re-
sponse to the grandeur of nature',
which was for him 'very much what
it was for Longinus, Burnet and Addi-
son'. 'Baillie's sublime', according to
his editor, 'is comfortably at home, as
was Addison's, within the Augustan
canons of taste'. The interest of this
facsimile of the pamphlet is enhanced
by the reproduction at the end of a
list of Books printed for R. Dodsley.
Scott's Dissertation on the Progress of
the Fine Arts, 20 originally published in
1800 and dedicated to Benjamin West,
is shown by Roy H. Pearce to be repre-
sentative of eighteenth-century criti-
cism in that it holds that great art,
which is necessarily a product of
nature, cannot flourish to the same
degree in a highly civilized as in a pri-
mitive society. Yet Scott hoped that
somehow the liberal public encour-
agement' of the arts which obtained
in Greece might come again and give
to his own country equal supremacy.
His belief in this possibility distin-
guishes his criticism from that of his
predecessors and contemporaries.

Richmond P. Bond deals with no
such theoretical matters. His task was
to select and reprint twenty-four ex-
amples of contemporary imitations 21
of the Tatler and Spectator and to
give some account of the vogue for
this kind of periodical. The texts re-
produced suffice to show the immense

19 An Essay on the Sublime (1747), by
John Baillie, ed. Samuel Holt Monk (1953).
pp vi+45.

2a Dissertation on the Progress of the
Fine Arts, by John Robert Scott, ed. Roy H.
Pearce. pp.vi+54.

21 Contemporaries of "The Tatler' and
'Spectator', ed. Richmond P. Bond. pp. x-f
52.

superiority of the ventures of Steele
and Addison.

Sheridan Baker reprints for the first
time since Richardson's day, his com-
plete Introduction? 2 and Preface, to-
gether with letters to the editor, com-
ments and textual revisions to Pamela
in one publication. He considers that
'to see the text and follow Richard-
son's changes is to get an unusually
intimate view of his attitude toward
his book, of his concessions and tena-
cities'. Baker also identifies the writers
of the letters, none of which was by
the author himself, though he made
'stylistic* changes in them and also
alterations to his Introduction in order
to meet objections by various critics.

Bonamy Dobree reprints for the
first time since its publication in 1732,
Bernard Mandeville's A Letter to
Dion, 23 'seeing that [it] contains a
good deal of fresh and characteristic
writing' although the author was al-
ready over seventy. Dobree prints the
text 'without alteration' or comment,
but his Introduction explains its posi-
tion in the controversy between eigh-
teenth-century 'optimists' and 'pessi-
mists' and summarizes the real points
at issue. He shows that The Fable of
the Bees was unfairly attacked and
misrepresented and that, in spite of its
raciness, in reality it formed one of
the usually more sober inquiries, com-
mon among contemporary thinkers,
into the motives that actuate human
action. The new edition should be of
value to students of literature and
of philosophy as well as to all those
moregenerally interested in eighteenth-
century life.

The Catalogue of Manuscripts,

22 Samuel Richardson's Introduction to
'Pamela', ed. Sheridan W. Baker, Jr. pp.
xxiv+38. Augustan Reprint Society, Nos.
43, 45, 47, 48. Los Angeles : Univ. of Cali-
fornia. Subscription'$3 or 15$. a year.

23 A Letter to Dion, by Bernard Mande-
ville, ed. Bonamy Dobree. Liverpool U.P.
pp.x+70. 6s.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

167

Books and Berkeleiana exhibited in
the Library of Trinity College, Dub-
lin on the Occasion of the Commemo-
ration of the Bicentenary of the Death
of George Berkeley, held on 7-12 July
1953 is a record of a * worthy tribute,
testifying to the author's lifelong in-
dustry, the range of his interests, his
reputation with his contemporaries,
and to his influence on them and on
the subsequent course of thought'. It
also testifies to the achievement of the
Berkeley Bicentenary Committee and
to the scholarship displayed by them
and their Chairman, A. A. Luce.

New Letters of David Hume 24 have
been collected by Raymond Klibansky
and Ernest Mossner and are published
as a supplement to Greig's edition
(YW xiii. 254-6). The new volume is
worthy of its predecessor and the re-
sult of immense industry combined
with enthusiasm and competent scho-
larship. The editors were prompted to
plan their work by the discovery of
additional letters 'in Oxford, London,
Edinburgh and Los Angeles' and the
systematic search since undertaken has
produced 127 letters, of which '98 are
not in Greig's edition and 27 are there
only in part'. 'Not a few letters whose
existence can be inferred still remain
untraced. ... It is hoped that gradu-
ally they will come to light.' Those
now presented are of great value in
their illumination of Hume's person-
ality and character as well as of his
'stature as diplomat and statesman' in
which capacity he was evidently much
more influential than has hitherto
been supposed. His post as Under-
secretary of State was one of real im-
portance in international affairs, and
the account given of his work as charge
d'affaires in 1765 and the correspon-
dence with the Secretary of State,
which describes what he is doing, re-

24 New Letters of David Hume, ed. Ray-
mond Klibansky and Ernest C. Mossner.
O.U.P. pp. xxxiv+254. 30s.

veal Hume in an aspect that could not
be adequately estimated before their
publication.

Of the other letters the most inter-
esting are perhaps those to Lord
Kames (between 1737 and 1747) and
those which cast fresh light on the
unfortunate dispute with Rousseau
(1765-7). This Hume himself described
as 'the most critical Affair which dur-
ing the Course of my whole Life, I
have been engaged in'. It is made in-
creasingly clear that the estrangement
was caused by Rousseau's suspicious
nature and not by any lack of 'genu-
ine solicitude' for his welfare on the
part of Hume.

The whole volume provides ample
proof of Hume's wide interests and of
his humanity, his love of fun, of good
company, and of the other good things
in life. As the editors justly say: 'Many
sides of his character are reflected in
this collection, but no aspect is brought
out more clearly than his adherence
to his own precept: "Be a philosopher;
but amidst all your philosophy, be still
a man."* The letters, like those in
Greig's edition, have little to say of
philosophical speculation: their value
lies in their revelation of the man and
in the fact that he was one of the great
letter-writers of the century.

E. C. Mossner, probably the best
qualified living commentator on
Hume's thought, confesses that the
Life 25 has been 'on the stocks more
or less since 1936'. The reader's re-
action is to acknowledge that the
labour has been expended to good
purpose: this is likely to remain the
authoritative biography, and the more
so that the writer decided that while
'the man predominates' his 'ideas'
must be sufficiently interpreted to
'provide the rationale of his actions'.
Mossner succeeds in making it clear

25 The Life of David Hume, by Ernest
Campbell Mossner. Nelson, pp. xx+684.
42s.

168

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

that Hume lived in accordance with
his own injunction: 'Be a philosopher;
but amidst all your philosophy, be still
a man.' He was no mere recluse or
man of letters but an active diplomat
and political administrator, interested
in all human experience and a good
friend to a large number of individuals
as various as John Wilkes, Boswell,
and Adam Smith. A chance acquain-
tance when he was Embassy Secretary
at Paris is quoted as describing him as
e a good, honest, droll sort of figure' at
Lord Hertford's table, who 'really puts
you in mind of the mastiff -Dog at the
fire-side' an unexpected picture of
the philosopher whose scepticism
aroused so much adverse criticism and
whose History was charged with irre-
ligion.

Mossner's balanced portrait puts the
man and his opinions in the right per-
spective and enables us to see him not
only as a great thinker but also as the
lovable person, the c bon David' and
'honest David', renowned for con-
viviality and wit, his passion for litera-
ture and his consistent avoidance of
malignant controversy. Hume acted on
his belief that 'All Raillery ought to be
avoided in philosophical Argument;
both because it is unphilosophical,and
because it cannot but be offensive, let
it be ever so gentle.' This attitude dif-
fered greatly from that common to
most controversialists of the day and
substantiates the claim made at the
end of his brief autobiography that
he was *a man of mild Disposition,
of Command of Temper, of an open,
social and cheerful Humour, capable
of Attachment, but little susceptible
of Enmity, and of great Moderation
in all my Passions. Even my Love of
literary Fame, my ruling Passion,
never soured my Humour, notwith-
standing my frequent Disappoint-
ments.'

Mossner's detailed Life, well-docu-
mented and indexed, provides full evi-

dence for the merits of his protagonist
from whatever aspect he be considered.

In this portrait of Lady Mary Wort-
ley Montagu, 2 * presented in narrative
form, I have endeavoured implicitly
to follow the main events of her life.
All letters and verses quoted are au-
thentic; no character is fictitious . . .
wherever possible, I have used her own
words in the dialogue.' Doris Leslie's
claim in her Foreword is substantially
justified in the story told, which is en-
livened by the author's humour and
imaginative reconstruction of past
times. Lady Mary is made to live
again in this well-written, novelized
biography.

The aim of The Rogues Gallery is
... to show . . . the conduct of a given
period through typical . . . people who
contributed to the richness and colour
of their time.' No better man could
have been chosen to begin the series
than the notorious son of Lady Mary,
Edward Wortley Montagu, 27 who dis-
graced and was finally abandoned by
his parents after an infamous career,
starting in childhood and who proudly
and truly boasted that he had 'never
committed a small folly'. He might
have claimed with equal justice that
from the age of 13 onwards he never
ceased committing large ones. As he
himself said, he 'acted successively all
the parts that Fielding has described
in his Julian". 'He knew many lan-
guages and many women. He was
Protestant, Roman Catholic, Moham-
medan, "universal believer".' He was
a consummate liar, a gambler, always
in debt, an adventurer; he spent many
years masquerading as a Turk in Con-
stantinople and in Egypt, and it is in-
deed impossible briefly to summarize
his life-history or his misdemeanours.

26 A Toast to Lady Mary, by Doris Leslie.
Hutchinson. pp. 320. 12s. 6d.

27 Edward Wortley Montagu. 1713-1776.
The Man in the Iron Wig, by Jonathan
Curling. The Rogue's Gallery, No. 1.
Melrose. pp.252. 2ls.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

169

Jonathan Curling's biography has
been compiled from original sources,
hitherto unpublished, as well as from
printed material. It is the first full-
dress account of Montagu and is writ-
ten with gusto as well as with know-
ledge of the subject. It makes lively
reading.

To JEGP Alan D. McKillop contri-
butes a description of Richardson's
Early Writings Another Pamphlet.
This he believes to be A Seasonable
Examination of the Pleas and Preten-
sions of the Proprietors of and Sub-
scribers to Play Houses, Erected in
Defiance of the Royal Licence. With
Some Brief Observations on the Prin-
ted Case of the Players belonging to
Drury Lane and Covent Garden
Theatres which appeared in May 1735.

The Penguin 'complete' and 'un-
abridged' edition of Joseph Andrews 28
is as well printed and cheap as the
other volumes in the series and can
be equally recommended to readers
new and old. The Preface adequately
summarizes Fielding's qualities as a
writer.

'Amelia and the State of Matrimony
(RES), by A. R. Towers, illustrates
Fielding's attitude towards married
life not only in Amelia but also in his
other writings. He is shown 'to base
his ideal upon the best and most ap-
proved [contemporary] authorities on
marital conduct'.

English Miscellany, vol. 5, ed. Mario
Praz, contains an article by Franz
Stanzer entitled 'Tom Jones' and 'Tris-
tram Shandy' which attempts an ex-
amination of the structure of the
novel in order to show that Sterne
conforms to a strict plan, though this
differs fundamentally from that of
Fielding or of Richardson.

Similarly in Mod Phil, Robert M.
Adams writes about A Russian Critic

2B Joseph Andrews, by Henry Fielding,
ed. P. N. Furbank. Penguin Book. pp. 352.
2s. 6d,

and 'Tristram Shandy', describing how
to Shklovsky 'Sterne's abiding interest
in formal problems is self-evident' and
his 'consistent practice of revealing his
formal devices to the reader'.

Archibald B. Shepperson (Mod
Phil) makes Additions and Correc-
tions to Facts about Fielding in rela-
tion to accounts of his work as a
magistrate and the light cast by these
on the dates of the completion of Tom
Jones and of the publication of five of
his later works.

Henry K. Miller has a note in PQ
on Benjamin Stillingfleet's 'Essay on
Conversation', 1737, and Henry Field-
ing.

A. Le Roy Greason gives further
reasons for Fielding's authorship of
An Address to the Electors of Great
Britain in PQ*

Encouraged by the publishers* blurb,
the student expects to find John Trau-
gott's examination 29 of Sterne's rhe-
toric to be the 'invigorating reading'
he is promised, but his hopes are
doomed to disappointment for the
author's own language defeats under-
standing and does not help him to
fathom the meaning of Tristram
Shandy. Traugott's sentences are so
involved, his repetitions and lack of
simplicity so frequent, that it is diffi-
cult, and sometimes impossible, to
grasp what he is trying to say. Part I
of the book deals with 'Sterne's Use of
the Materials of Locke's "Essay Con-
cerning Human Understanding" and
considers his indebtedness to it and
also how 'by burlesquing and subvert-
ing the philosophical assumptions of
Locke, who believed wit to be a posi-
tive evil, Sterne protests the moral
value of wit'. As both Locke and
Sterne are difficult writers, the first
requirement of a critic who wishes to

29 Tristram Shandy's World: Sterne's
Philosophical Rhetoric, by John Traugott.
Univ. of California and C.U.P. pp. xvi+
166. 22s. 6d.

170

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

explain their ideas is that he shall
write clearly, but this is what Traugott
does not do. Part II examines 'Sterne's
Rhetoric as a Means of Communica-
tion' and his use of language. It does
not succeed in making it easier to
follow 'the particular structures of
Sterne's wit, his dialectical techniques,
his private rhetoric'. In short, Sterne is
less obscure than Traugott's attempts
at elucidation of a master of English
prose.

In MLN Bernard L. Greenberg
shows in Laurence Sterne and Cham-
bers' 'Cyclopaedia' that 'much of the
erudition displayed in Tristram
Shandy was obtained in pre-digested
form'.

For the first time Benjamin Hoover
undertakes a detailed study of John-
son's early work as a contributor to
Cave's Gentleman's Magazine during
the years 1741-3, combining this with
an account of the beginnings of par-
liamentary reporting 30 and the diffi-
culties which it encountered. His book
consists of an Introduction and four
chapters entitled 'Historical Back-
grounds', The Debates during Two
Centuries', The Debates as Fact', and
The Debates as Art', together with
fourteen pages of notes, a biblio-
graphy, appendixes which comprise
specimens of the text and a list of the
debates generally accepted as by John-
son. There is also an index. It may be
said at once that the author succeeds
in his endeavour 'to persuade the
reader that the work has high impor-
tance, historical and literary, as an
original work'. There can be no ques-
tion that Hoover supersedes Hill's brief
study of the Debates and that he shows
that 'they provide an essential key to
our understanding of Johnson's de-

30 Samuel Johnson's Parliamentary Re-
porting: Study of Johnson's Debates in the
Senate of Lilliput, by Benjamin Beard
Hoover, Univ. of California and C.XLP.
pp. xii4-228. 2ls.

velopmenf . Hoover agrees with Hill
that the idea of the Lilliputian device
probably issued from 'Johnson's fer-
tile mind' and that he was responsible
for the introductory description. An
examination of the style of the de-
bates he wrote also proves it to be
'strongly marked by distinctively John-
sonian features' both in manner and
matter. 'He attempts to give timeless-
ness to what might have been nothing
more than hack work ... by relating
the proceedings, in appropriate lan-
guage, to great, general truths.'

In MLQ John R. Moore writes on
'Rasselas' and the Early Travellers to
Abyssinia, showing that when he de-
scribed the Happy Valley, Johnson
was drawing on the accounts not only
or chiefly of Lob o but also of various
other available narratives of Jesuit
explorers.

Richard B. Hovey deals with 'John-
son as a suffering neurotic' in his
paper on Dr. Samuel Johnson, Psy-
chiatrist (MLQ), a further examina-
tion of Rasselas as an autobiographi-
cal revelation in the account there
given of the astronomer (Chaps, 40-
47).

Paul Pussell contributes A Note on
Samuel Johnson and the Rise of Ac-
centual Prosodic Theory to PQ.

Similarly W. R. Keast considers
Johnson's Plan of a Dictionary: A
Textual Crux, and Ajrthur Sherbo
writes on Dr. Johnson's Dictionary
and War burton's Shakespeare (PQ).

Yeats's Byzantium and Johnsons
Lichfield, by D. J. Greene, points out
'how essentially poetic is Johnson's
prose' (PQ).

In MLQ Martin Kallich discusses
The Argument against the Associa-
tion of Ideas in Eighteenth-Century
^Esthetics and the objections raised to
the 'associationist psychology' among
others by Burke who does not believe
in 'the association of ideas as the
source of taste and beauty'.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

171

In MLN an article on The Associa-
tion of Ideas in Samuel Johnson's
Criticism by the same writer shows
that while Johnson is not influenced
by 'associationist psychology' in the
philosophical sense of the term, and
"ignores the foundations of esthetics'
in his mainly 'pragmatic criticism', he
nevertheless uses the 'association of
ideas' in the more popular eighteenth-
century meaning of 'connexion of
ideas'. 'Johnson adopts Locke's inter-
pretation . . . and in his literary criti-
cism he applies it best ... to the
non-classical concept of decorum,
especially the propriety of diction
and subject-matter.'

Also in MLN Charles G. Osgood
traces to Macrobius a remark by Im-
lac at the beginning of his life-story in
Chap. 8 of Rasselas. Since that chapter
is 'essentially autobiographical', the
reference to these views on the 'busi-
ness of a scholar' is particularly re-
vealing.

Benjamin Bryce examines Samuel
Johnson's Criticism of Pope in the
'Life of Pope' (RES) 'paragraph by
paragraph' and compares what he says
with the verdicts of earlier critics,
Addison, Dennis, Warburton, and
others. He comes to the conclusion
that Johnson was neither so original
nor so superior as is generally sup-
posed and that 'he was . . . regularly
dependent' upon them for 'direction
in his commentary'. Boyce gives chap-
ter and verse for the surprising results
of his investigation.

The Everyman edition of Johnson's
Lives of the Poets 31 was noticed in YW
vi when it first appeared. It is now re-
printed in the new form. It is a pity
that the Introduction has not been
revised as it is more inadequate today
than when it was then criticized.

31 Lives of the Poets, by Samuel Johnson,
ed. L. Archer Hind. 2 vols. * Dent : Every-
man's Library, Nos. 770 and 771. pp. xvi-f
396, vi+392. 65. each.

Modern scholarship would not accept
the editor's estimate of Johnson's
criticism nor feel that her quotations
from Professor Hales or from Macau-
lay do justice either to his standpoint
or to his achievement. The life and
thought of the eighteenth century are
better understood today than they
were in the Victorian Age and recent
study of the history of criticism and
of Johnson has greatly modified earlier
opinion on those subjects.

It would have seemed impossible
for S. C. Roberts to produce an en-
tirely fresh introduction to the study
of Johnson as a man of letters 32 had
this contribution to Writers and their
Work not been sent for notice. Suffice
to say that even those who have known
Johnson's writings intimately for many
years and are also well acquainted
with BoswelTs Life will find new mat-
ter for thought in this pamphlet, which
also forms an excellent introduction
to the beginner. A special word of
praise must be given to the biblio-
graphy which includes some of the
most recent works on Johnson as well
as older books such as that by John
Bailey. But the whole booklet is com-
pletely satisfying. The same writer
contributes a description of More
Boswell Letters to TLS, 1 January.

Moray McLaren's Highland Jaunt
is a tribute to Boswell and Johnson
by an ardent admirer and a Scot who
knows and loves the Highlands as well
as any man now living. McLaren
undertook on foot and horseback a
journey covering the same ground as
Boswell and Johnson in 1773 and he
succeeds in revivifying their experi-
ences in a way not achieved even by
their own immortal accounts of their

32 Samuel Johnson, by S. C. Roberts.
Longmans, for the British Council and
National Book League, pp. 44. 2s.

33 The Highland Jaunt, A Study of James
Boswell and Samuel Johnson upon their
Highland and Hebridean Tour of 1773, by
Moray McLaren. Jarrolds. pp. 272. 16.y.

172

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

travels. For while they described
chiefly the people and customs they
encouatered, he fills in the background
of scenery and of the changes which
have depopulated the Highlands since
the eighteenth century, while at the
same time making Boswell and John-
son themselves appear almost as the
live companions of his wanderings.
The result of his jaunt is a masterpiece
which almost challenges comparison
with their own accounts so that pre-
sent-day tourists will find his book a
valuable guide to what is best worth
seeing and remembering in the High-
lands. McLaren observes accurately
and sensitively and sets down what he
has to say in prose which makes his
book delightful reading as well as a
work of historical value.

The British Museum Quarterly, vol.
xix, no. 4, notes the acquisition by the
Department of Manuscripts of mate-
rial from Dr. Burney's original, un-
finished Memoirs (now numbered Add,
MS. 48345), which escaped Fanny's
destruction after she had published
what she considered of interest to the
public. These fragments', says P, J.
Willetts, 'afford a tantalizing glimpse
of what has been lost', and also prove
that 'Fanny's editing went so far as
deliberate alteration of the original'.

John Wilkes and Charles Churchill
were jointly responsible for the pro-
duction of the North Briton and were
friends as well as colleagues. But their
correspondence 34 though accessible in
the British Museum and Guildhall
Libraries, had not been printed in full
until the publication of Edward H.
Weatherly's carefully edited volume
with an excellent Introduction and
footnotes to the text. These give all
necessary information about the state
of politics and personal relations dur-

34 The Correspondence of John Wilkes
and Charles Churchill, ed. Edward H.
Weatherly. Columbia and O.U.P. pp. xxx+
114. 22s.

ing the years 1762-4, the date of the
correspondence, and explain any diffi-
culties in the letters without superflu-
ous padding. For the most part Wilkes
and Churchill write hurriedly and, as
a rule, briefly, but no one can read
their correspondence without obtain-
ing fresh insight into the history of
the time and especially into the con-
troversy about No. 45 of the North
Briton, and the characters of the two
men who edited and produced it.
Weatherly 's scholarly little volume is
a welcome addition to knowledge of
the contemporary scene.

John Wesley's Prayers 35 are taken
from his first prayer-book of 1733,
composed for the use of his Oxford
pupils, and also from later collections
which he published. F. C. Gill says in
his Introduction that he has followed
the example set by Wesley himself in
that he has 'made no bones' over whole-
sale revision by abridgement, adapta-
tion, and alteration when this was con-
sidered necessary for modern use. Yet
the little book forms, as he claims,
*a rich devotional anthology' and re-
veals at the same time the author's
character and personality, as well as
'the devotional spirit which prompted
and nourished the Methodist Re-
vival'.

The third reissue of John Wesley*
by C. E. Vulliamy is a lithographical
reprint of the original, noticed in YW
xii. 253. Some additions to the biblio-
graphy are printed on the last page of
the jacket.

William Wakinshaw's brief life of
John Wesley 37 was first published in
1928, but not then noticed in YW.
This new edition seems to show that
it met the need for a short, popular
account for ordinary Methodists of

35 John Wesley's Prayers, ed. Frederick C.
Gill. Epworth Press, pp. 102. 5s.

36 John Wesley > by C. E. Vulliamy. Ep-
worth Press. pp.x+370. 185.

37 John Wesley, by William Wakinshaw.
Epworth Press, pp. 76. 2s.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

173

the founder of their sect, 'the most
eminent of English Protestants', as he
is considered by the author.

In her Tale of Two Brothers
Mabel Richmond Brailsford gives a
full account of the partnership and
of the differences between John and
Charles Wesley. Her historical accur-
acy is displayed throughout and there
can be doubt neither of her scholar-
ship nor of her enthusiasm. But these
are tempered by a lightness of style
and a humorous approach and me-
thod of statement that make her book
delightful reading even for an unbe-
liever. Miss Brailsford devotes herself
more particularly to the subject of the
younger brother and to the interfer-
ence with John's courtship and private
life which led to the breach between
them. But she tells the whole story of
the work accomplished by both men,
of its greatness and of their failures in
a way which revivifies their back-
ground as well as their achievement.
Hers is the best and most satisfying
story of the rise of Methodism and of
the men who were its founders that
has been published, nor is it likely to
be superseded in spite of occasional
slips (e.g. about the Non-Jurors) and
perhaps too much reliance on com-
monplace psychological explanations
of character, especially in the explana-
tion of John's unsuccess as a suitor.

The Hymns of Wesley and Watts 39
is a sixth reprint of the book first
noticed in YW xxiii. 177-8 and re-
quires no further description than is
there given.

The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire in Everyman's Library first

38 A Tale of Two Brothers, John and
Charles Wesley, by Mabel Richmond Brails-
ford. Rupert Hart-Davis, pp. 302. 16s.

39 The Hymns of Wesley and Watts, Five
Informal Papers, by Bernard Lord Manning.
Epworth Press, pp. 144. 6s.

40 The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, by Edward Gibbon, ed. Christopher
Dawson. Dent: Everyman's Library, Nos.

appeared in 1910 and this is a reprint
of that edition in the new larger
format. The volumes contain an In-
troduction by Christopher Dawson,
Notes by Oliphant Smeaton, a biblio-
graphy, and a full index to all six
volumes.

The Selections from the Torrington
Diaries 41 now published in one volume
will doubtless make the author better
known to those who were intimidated
by the extent and prolixity of the com-
plete edition (YW xix. 203). It is cer-
tainly true, as Arthur Bryant writes in
his brief Introduction, that 'he left us
a picture of England as it was when
he lived which is among the great
treasures of our social history'. Grate-
ful as readers must be to the original
discoverer of the diaries and to the
editors, they still have reason to com-
plain of errors in the text which could
easily have been avoided and of notes,
sometimes superfluous and at others
by no means illuminating. The actual
abridgement and choice of the journals
to be included are, however, satisfac-
tory and this single volume presents a
picture of the writer's travels and a
portrait of the author which make it
a most readable and desirable posses-
sion. Byng takes his rightful place
among the foremost English diarists,
and no social historian can afford to
neglect his accounts of his experien-
ces, his comments and grumbles, his
detailed descriptions of country seats,
provincial customs, village inns, the
dire effects of turnpike roads and mail
coaches on rural life and the hundred
and one other subjects of interest that

434, 435, 436, 474, 475, 476. pp. xx+500,
vi+524, vi+462, vi+534, vi -4-590, viii +
600. Six vols. each Is.

41 The Torrington Diaries. A Selection
from the Tours of the Hon. John Byng (later
Fifth Viscount Torrington) between the
years 1781 and 1794, ed. C. Bruyn Andrews
and abridged into one volume by Fanny
Andrews. Eyre & Spottiswoode. pp. viii+
528. 30j.

174

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

he notes as he rides on his way. Besides
the man himself, a genuine 'character',
cannot fail to inspire affectionate re-
spect. We do not like him less for being
enabled to share his threefold enjoy-
ment of his tours, 'by anticipation, by
the present enjoyment, and by a record
of the past'. As he says, 'diaries form
an history of life and those who write
them intend much to be conveyed,
"more is meant than meets the ear" '.

Beckford's Sketches of Spam and
Portugal, first published in 1834, has
long been recognized as the master-
piece of the eccentric 'author of
Vathek' and as being a very great
work of art What has not been so
generally knowa is the fact that it is
the re-edition and rewriting of the
diary, 42 first composed thirty-four
years earlier when Beckford was
living as an exile from English society
in Lisbon or Madrid. Boyd Alexander
has now printed the contents of his
daily journal of his residence in the
Peninsula so that it is possible to esti-
mate Beckford's conscious literary
skill as well as the immense influence
exerted on him more particularly by
his admiration and love for Portugal
and the Portuguese. Alexander de-
scribes the Sketches as a 'carefully
edited series of extracts from the ori-
ginal Journal and miscellaneous jot-
tings cast into letter form and exclud-
ing almost everything personal and the
leading themes and plots; it also con-
tains fresh material 1 . What Alexander
has done is to make full use of the
notes on miscellaneous sheets of paper,
backs of letters, &c., and of the green
pocket-book which Beckford carried
about with him in all his wanderings
between 1778 and 1795, so as to repro-
duce as far as possible the first impres-
sions made at the times on the writer.
Alexander's work has been carried

42 The Journal of William Beckford in
Portugal and Spain, 2787-1788, ed. Boyd
Alexander. Hart-Davis, pp. 340, 3(Xy.

out with immense skill and patience
and his readers must be grateful to
him for the opportunity of properly
appraising not only Beckford's impor-
tance as a writer but also what is per-
haps the best existing description of
Portugal before Napoleonic upheavals
had resulted in a ruinous civil war.

In MLN, in a note on The Canon
and Chronology of William Godwin's
Early Works, Jack W. Marken gives
a f uU list and chronology of Godwin's
early writings exclusive of his contri-
butions to periodicals. Among these
he has discovered that Godwin wrote
three novels in 1783 and 1784, none
of which has been known to his bio-
graphers.

A reprint in the new format of the
Everyman edition of Eighteenth Cen-
tury Plays 43 noticed in YW x. 291-2
requires no further comment than is
there given.

The 'Refinement' of 'Othello' in the
Eighteenth Century British Theatre by
Marvin Rosenberg (5 in Ph) gives an
account of the stage versions of the
play and the cuts made in the names
of decency and propriety.

R, M. Lockley has written a useful
little book about Gilbert White**
whom he brings to life as a man and
not only as the author of the well-
known Natural History. Lockley evi-
dently knows and loves his subject and
is also well acquainted with Selborne
and its history. His style is too chatty
to attract everybody and there are
lapses in grammar and construction
which ought not to occur. There is
also a terrible misquotation in the
chapter heading of Chapter XIV,
which makes nonsense of Landor's
well-known verse. These things detract

43 Eighteenth Century Plays, ed. John
Hampden. Dent : Everyman's Library, No.
818. pp. xxiii+408. 75.

44 Gilbert White, by R. M. Lockley.
Great Naturalists Series. Witherby. pp. 128.
9s. 6d.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

175

from the value of an otherwise read-
able volume.

Since 1941 Percy A. Scholes has
been engaged in 'the long and pro-
longed research' which has resulted in
this interesting and recondite account
of God Save the Queen! 45 which is
embellished 'with many historical
caricatures and other illustrations',
including a reproduction of Ame's
manuscript copy of the 'Score for the
First Recorded Performance' in 1745.
This took place during the threatened
invasion by the Young Pretender when,
at Covent Garden, the audience 'in an
outburst of patriotism encored with
repeated Huzzahs' the singing of the
anthem. But the words had been al-
tered from an earlier version 'written
and sung for King James', and the
Jacobites continued to use it to express
loyalty to the Stuarts. The words have
never been of much literary value, but
the tune has not only been popular in
this country but wherever it has been
heard or adopted overseas. Scholes
pursues his research into every pos-
sible aspect of the subject, origins,
parodies, translations, performances,
and uses of the tune by other com-
posers; he also provides a biblio-
graphy, while the illustrations enliven
a learned volume which should appeal
to every type of reader, whatever his
special interest.

The letters of the Williamsons, 46
preserved in the family archives, are
several hundred in number and date
from the mid-eighteenth to the early
nineteenth century. They are for the
most part addressed to Edmond, rec-
tor of Millbrook, to his second wife

45 Cod Save the Queen! The History and
Romance of the World's First National
Anthem, by Percy A. Scholes. O.U.P. pp.
xviii+328. 305.

46 The Williamson Letters, 1748-1765,
ed. F. J, Manning. Bedfordshire Historical
Record Society, vol. xxxiv. Streatley, nr.
Luton, Beds. pp. viii4-148. Non-members,
25,$., Members, 21s.

Mary, and to their son Edmond, rec-
tor of Camp ton and Shefford. Those
now published by the Bedfordshire
Historical Record Society are mainly
addressed to the first-named and 182
are printed from a group of some 300
written between 1748 and 17 65, 'nearly
half of them in full, the remainder
shortened to a lesser or greater de-
gree'. The object of the editor has been
to include a representative selection
of all the topics treated in the corre-
spondence. These cover improve-
ments to the house, food, dress, mar-
riage, books, children's upbringing,
estate management, enclosures, and
park-making by a neighbouring duke,
travel, poverty, war and other news,
'and the principles by which ... a
Christian gentleman lived'. F. J. Man-
ning provides a brief Introduction, a
genealogical chart, an index of per-
sons and places and another of sub-
jects. The volume is full of interest
and, as presented, the letters are well
worth publication. They give a good
picture of the daily life of those well-
to-do country landowners of the
period who took their duties seriously
and did their best for their poorer
neighbours. Though the clerical tra-
dition in the family was strong, the
letters deal little either with religious
matters or with literature.

The well-written and produced ac-
count of the life and work of Joseph
Priestley 4 ' 7 is a welcome addition to
the unusually cheap 'They Served
Mankind' series. It should prove a
popular introduction to the writings
and achievements of the discoverer of
oxygen.

The first instalment of The Unpub-
lished Letters of Evan Lloyd is pub-
lished by Cecil Price in The National
Library of Wales Journal (vol. viii,
no. 3) with full notes by the editor.

47 Joseph Priestley, The Man of Science,
by Boswell Taylor. Macmillan. They
Served Mankind series, pp. 56. Is. 9d.

176

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The correspondence begins in 1751
when Lloyd went up to Jesus College,
Oxford, and concludes just before his
death at the age of 42 in January 1776.
The letters now published end in 1768
and are mostly addressed to his father.
They are of great interest in their
revelation of the writer's character,
his conception of his clerical duties
and the way he fulfilled them, and,
while he lived in London, his inter-
course with his friends who included
Sterne, Garrick, and, above all, John
Wilkes. The offprint repays perusal by
all who are interested in eighteenth-
century life and letters.

Paul Hazard's European Thought
in the Eighteenth Century?* now made
available in an excellent translation, is
the continuation of the work noticed
in YW xvi. 279/80, and all that was
there said of the importance of the
earlier volume can be reiterated about
the treatment of the later period. It is
obviously impossible in this chapter
to deal with a survey of thought that
is concerned with the whole of Europe
from 1715 until the French Revolu-
tion. Part I of the book is entitled
'Christianity on Trial' and deals with
the growth of unbelief in revealed reli-
gion. Part II, The City of Men', dis-
cusses natural religion, the develop-
ment of the natural sciences, the state
of law, morals, government, educa-
tion, the encyclopaedia, the world of
letters and ideas and manners, leading
on to Part III, 'Disaggregation', an
examination, subdivided into three
books, of the philosophic ideas which
led to the various forms of deism as
exemplified in Bolingbroke and Pope,
in Voltaire, and in Lessing. Finally,
the 'Conclusion' illustrates in a bril-
liant conspectus how Europe 'indeter-
minate in regard to its eastern borders

48 European Thought in the Eighteenth
Century, by Paul Hazard, translated by
JL Lewis May. Hollis & Carter, pp. xx+
478. 35s.

and uncertain in its divisions forms,
despite the diversity of its elements, a
marvellous whole', supreme in its 'un-
wearying curiosity' and 'perpetual
effort to improve things', whether
material or intellectual. To begin
with in this period 'Europe's effort to
realize spiritual unity' centred upon
France, but her supremacy was gradu-
ally challenged as 'the genius of each
nation tend[ed] to assert itself, at the
expense of its neighbours'.

Nationalistic ideas 4 brewing in the
eighteenth century*, were destined to
assert themselves in the nineteenth so
that the common European culture
became disrupted. As Hazard sees it,
the ideal of a 'true Europe united in
one harmonious whole' can yet be
achieved by 'her endless and insatiable
longing for goodness and truth', which
will overcome the 'chaos of warring
interests' and enable her to endure.

For ELH the late Raymond D.
Havens wrote his last article, Solitude
and the Neoclassidsts. In this he shows
that while they preferred social to
solitary life they liked to praise the
virtues of solitude. But by this they
did not mean complete isolation or
absence of company; on the contrary,
they agreed with Hume that 'A per-
fect solitude is perhaps the greatest
punishment we can suffer'. To the neo-
classicists solitude implied what we
should call retirement, 'a quiet life in
the country with a few friends and
books', and for most of them even
this was something of which to read
the praises, not to endure. Yet 'while
retirement was a literary fashion it
was also a fact' and there are many
instances of withdrawal to a quiet
rural existence, though for the mosl
part by those who feared 'the tempests'
and temptations of social life.

Bosker's painstaking study of Liter-
ary Criticism in the Age of Johnson 4 '

49 Literary Criticism in the Age of John
son, by A. Bosker. Groningen: J. B

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

177

is a revised version of the essay first
published in 1930 and not then sent
for notice in the YW. The book is
divided into two parts, 'one dealing
with general critical tendencies . . .
the other discussing the various critics
of the time separately', and the new
edition pays considerably more atten-
tion than before 'to writers on aesthe-
tic theory like Burke, Hume, Hutche-
son, Gerard' and also includes a 'full
discussion of Edward Young as a
critic' in a 'new chapter on imitation,
genius and learning'. The whole work
describes the conflict between the up-
holders of 'unimpassioned reason on
the one side, emotion and imagination
on the other', but the author is at pains
to emphasize that 'the struggle [is] be-
tween two schools of criticism which
have always existed and will always
exist'. Nevertheless he shows that
'the rationalistic method of criticism
dominated the age of Johnson' though
'a new conception of poetry based on
the supremacy of the imagination' was
gradually coming into being. His con-
clusions are not new but they are
reached after a detailed examination
of critical opinion and of individual
writers great and small, which have
not previously been combined in a
single volume. Bosker's investigation
therefore casts fresh light on his sub-
ject and provides valuable material
for the understanding of the period.
The book contains an extensive bib-
liography of texts and of historical
and critical studies as well as a full
index. The Dutch publishers contri-
bute to the reader's comfort by the
excellent type and general production.
In his discussion 50 of life and letters
in eighteenth-century England, some-
what loosely labelled the Augustan

Welters, pp. xii+346. (Cambridge : Heffer,
sole distributors.)

50 The Augustan World: Life and Letters
in Eighteenth Century England, by A. R.
Humphreys. Methuen. pp. x+284. 16s,

B 5641 M

period since he deals with the whole
century, A. R. Humphreys endeavours
to 'explore outwards from literature
into society and then return from so-
ciety to literature again', in order to
discover 'how the writer might feel in
his world'. With this object in view his
six sections deal with 'Social Life',
The World of Business', 'Public Af-
fairs', 'Religious Life', 'Philosophy,
Moral and Natural', and The Visual
Arts', each chapter containing first an
account of its main theme and con-
cluding with an examination of its in-
fluence on literature. The summary
and popular treatment of such topics
necessarily lead the author to gene-
ralizations which cannot always be
accepted and, sometimes, to mistakes
in fact and to misleading statements.
But there is no doubt of his wide read-
ing and intimate knowledge of his
period; his book should arouse corre-
sponding interest in those who seek a
broad survey of eighteenth-century
conditions before they embark on a
detailed study of its literature.

TLS (17 Dec.) contains a letter
from A. R. Humphreys in answer to
the review of his book (3 Dec.) to-
gether with the critic's reply to his
comments.

In The Old Cause 51 John Carswell
seeks by a study of Wharton, Doding-
ton, and Charles Fox to trace through
the medium of their biographies the
development of the idea of a constitu-
tional opposition and to explain what
the word 'whig' meant in relation to
the careers of these three men. For he
believes that it is only 'by extension in
time, that the subtle changes in temper
and the significance of the same old
words, the gradual accretion and al-
teration of habit, can be discerned'.
The references in the Index to Pope's
friendship with Wharton, dislike of

51 The Old Cause, Three Bibliographical
Studies in Whiggism, by John Carswell.
Cresset Press, pp. xxiv+402. 3(Xy.

178

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Dodington and lines on Addison, or
to Johnson's opinion of Fox suffice to
recall the close ties between statesmen
and men of letters in the eighteenth
century, while the careers of Swift,
Burke, Addison, and Steele prove that
there was no dividing line between
literature and politics. CarswelTs well-
documented account of the three men
he has chosen as prototypes of Whig-
gism forms a real contribution to the
history of the growth of the peculiarly
British type of government with its
conception of a recognized, official
opposition.

In a brief Introduction Roland
Stromberg summarizes the subject-
matter of his book 52 by saying that
Chapters I-III 'deal with preparations
and backgrounds for the emergence
of a rational approach to religion and
a period of bold speculation, Chapters
IV- VI take up the radical challenge to
orthodoxy unitarianism and deism',
Chapters VII and VIII discuss 'the
crises within the camp of Christian
orthodoxy' while the next three chap-
ters endeavour 'to indicate the social
and political implications of this reli-
gious controversy'. Tn the concluding
chapter there are some remarks on the
final significance of the eighteenth cen-
tury's religious controversies.' While
this account fairly indicates the scope
of his work, it cannot hint at the scho-
larship, care, and understanding which
the writer has devoted to the exposi-
tion of his theme. He succeeds in show-
ing how rational inquiry and emotional
appeal both contributed to the sur-
vival of religious faith during the cen-
tury and to new developments in the
Romantic period. Thus he fittingly
concludes with 'a comment of Dr.
Barrow's, quoted by the deist Boling-
broke: "If we seriously weigh the case,
we shall find that to require faith with-

52 Religious Liberalism in Eighteenth
Century England, by Roland N. Stromberg.
O.U.P. pp.xii+192. 21s.

out reason is to demand an impossi-
bility, and that God therefore neither
doth nor can enjoin us faith without
reason."' The footnotes and biblio-
graphy testify to the wide reading that
formed the basis of Stromberg's argu-
ment.

Dane Farn worth Smith in a detailed
examination of The Critics in the
Audience of the London Theatres 53
shows the grounds for his belief that
'the best sources for a study of the
effect of classical artistic theory on the
ordinary social life of the time are the
numerous farces and dramatic satires
about the theatre which, published
and unpublished, are scattered about
in the great libraries of England and
America' and of 'certain prologues
and epilogues of the more successful
plays of the age'. We are now given
chapter and verse for the often-noted
discrepancy between critical faith in
the Rules and their non-observance in
the successful plays of the eighteenth
century and Farn worth Smith has done
good service by his untiring labour in
a hitherto unexplored field of research.
He has succeeded in showing that 'the
total effect' of 'audience participation*
in the theatre was salutary and even
constructive, and that plays which
failed, deserved to fail while the actors
could depend on 'the good nature and
the good judgment of the spectators'
in the pit and the gallery.

An important study of the domes-
tic life 54 of all ranks of Scottish so-
ciety was published in 1952 but has
only now reached the YW for notice.
The book is fully documented and the

53 The Critics in the Audience of the
London Theatres from Buckingham to
Sheridan. Study of Neo-Classicism in the
Playhouse 1671-1779, by Dane Farnworth
Smith. Albuquerque : Univ. of New Mexico
Press (1953). pp.192. $1.50.,

54 The Domestic Life of Scotland in the
Eighteenth Century, by Marjorie Plant.
Nelson for Edinburgh U.P. 1952. pp. xii-h
320. 255.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

179

sources of information given in the
References to the twelve chapters run
to some forty pages. The author sup-
plies detailed descriptions of family
life, education, entertainment, cook-
ing, clothes, health, and sanitation,
&c., and, though clearly she has under-
taken considerable research, writes in
such a way as to attract the general
reader as well as the social historian,
or student of the background of
eighteenth-century writers.

Over fifty pages of a readable book 55
deal with the life of the country-

55 The English Countrywoman: A Farm-
house Social History, A.D. 1500-1900, by
G. E. and K. R. Fussell. Melrose. pp. xvi+
222. 305.

woman in the eighteenth century. The
authors present a complete picture of
the doings of the lady of the manor,
the farmer's wife, and the woman and
children of the field labourers at home,
in the kitchen, in the garden, the still-
room, the dairy, and the school. The
internal aspect of rural life' is fully
shown and much learning, while visible
throughout, does not hinder the writers
from producing another fascinating
account of that part of social history
in which they are chiefly interested.
Illustrations add to the attraction of an
engrossing chronicle of former days.
Mrs. Barbauld's name is consistently
misspelt on pp. 138-9, apparently not
by the fault of the printer.

XIII. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

(d) Books

By GEOFFREY BULLOUGH

1 . Poetry and Poets

THE year brought from Oxford two
considerable studies of Wordsworth
by F. W. Bateson 1 and John Jones. 2
Bateson's book is intended as 'an in-
troductory critical report on Words-
worth as a poet and a man' in the
light of all the rich material now avail-
able. Wordsworth 'is in truth the ex-
treme instance of Romanticism*, whose
greatness lies 'in the heroic and agon-
ised efforts that he made to break out
of his own subjectivity'. Asserting that
we must try to understand the two
voices of Wordsworth, both the 'spiri-
tualizing' pieces composed in the soul,
and those marked by what Coleridge
called a 'daring humbleness of lan-
guage and versification, and a strict
adherence to matter of fact, even to
prolixity', he notes a difference be-
tween the poems written before and
after July 1798 which can be appre-
ciated only by exploring 'the personal
tragedies, the anguished decisions, the
half -conscious, half-animal terrors and
ecstasies' that really determined his
career. Bateson traces the growth of
the Child who was 'father of the Man',
the emergence of emotional (even neu-
rotic) and picturesque attitudes to
nature, and he puts more stress than
traditional Wordsworthians on the
poet's friendships, and his loves for
'Mary of Esthwaite', Annette Vallon,
and his sister Dorothy. The crisis with

1 Wordsworth: A Re-interpretation, by
F. W. Bateson. Longmans, pp. ix+227.
2ls.

2 The Egotistical Sublime. A History of
Wordsworth's Imagination., by John Jones.
Chatto & Windus. pp. x+212. 165.

which Wordsworth found himself con-
fronted in 1798 was the discovery that
he and Dorothy were falling in love
with each other.' The Lucy poems were
probably an attempt to solve 'the dan-
gerous relationship with Dorothy . . .
by killing her off symbolically'. To
please Dorothy he still would write
many poems about flowers and birds,
but her place was taken by the 'ego-
tistical sublime', by 'eliminating every
other human being except himself
from his emotional life'. This view of
Wordsworth shocked most critics [cf.
TLS 722, 739, 759. MLR (1955), 333].
Fortunately Bateson's book does not
entirely depend upon his theory about
Dorothy or his insistence on 'the
highly charged, almost hysterical at-
mosphere within the original circle of
the Wordsworths, the Coleridges and
the Hutchinsons'. He is illuminating
about the shorter poems before 1802
(e.g. Salisbury Plain, The Ruined Cot-
tage), the conflicting social and reli-
gious pressures on the poet; and he
concludes that 'so far from surrender-
ing to the neurotic elements in his per-
sonality, as so many Romantic poets
have done, Wordsworth's early life
was one long struggle against them.
And . . . the general direction of the
poetry is undoubtedly towards sanity,
sincerity, sympathy, gaiety in a word
the humane virtues.'

John Jones's book approaches the
poems without any dubious psycho-
logical theories. Admitting the literal-
ness of Wordsworth's imagination he
insists on 'a partnership between the
mind and the external world', and sees
the loss of sensibility as due to a gra-
dual dulling of his mind brought to a
climax by the sudden loss of his brother
in 1 805. His thesis is that 'solitude and
attachment, the huge abstractions

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

181

moving through Wordsworth's life
and poetry, are in time joined by his
Christianity, which makes its presence
felt in opposition to them', and the
book is organized so as to show three
aspects, 'the poetry of solitude and
relationship', 'the poetry of indecision',
and 'the offering of a baptised ima-
gination'. The first part of the scheme
is worked out with delicate perception
of Wordsworth's 'thought in sense'.
The second aspect reflects the disso-
ciation of the poet's intellect and his
vision, related to doubts about the
nature of man and the self which re-
sult often in a 'sacrifice of the univer-
sal and the particular for the merely
general'. Jones discusses how Words-
worth was forced into Christianity
with both good and bad effects on the
later poetry, which has been denigrated
because of 'his changed attitude to the
conventional in diction and imagery,
which at his best he makes the con-
trolled means of serving new ends',
for 'style in ceremony takes him fur-
thest in his Christian poetry*. [Re-
viewed TLS 145.]

In a long study of The Prelude,
Abbie F. Potts 3 traces in fourteen
chapters the growth of the poem and
of the poet's mind in relation to 'the
poems that Wordsworth studied in
school and in college'. Some main
parallels are summarized thus in the
first chapter: 'The Prelude is very like
many markedly different English
poems. In its lyric and idyllic it is like
Beattie's Minstrel, Thomson's Castle
of Indolence, and Gray's Bard. More
and more, while Wordsworth re-
shapes it into a nature ritual, it grows
to be like Thomson's Seasons. When
it reaches its apocalyptic episodes, it
is akin to Young's Night Thoughts.
And when its author works out its
action, he has help from the Pilgrim's

3 Wordsworth's 'Prelude' : A Study of its
Literary Form, by A. F. Potts. Cornell U.P.
and O.U.P. (1953). pp. xii+392. 48s.

Progress of John Bunyan. ... In his
Books I and II [he] takes over an aes-
thetic task from the unfinished Book
IV of the Pleasures of the Imagina-
tion of Dr. Mark Akenside. . . . Book
III of The Prelude is like Pope's Dun-
dad, Book IV; and Book VI refers in
its itinerary to Goldsmith's Traveller',
&c., &c.

Because Potts usually perceives the
different aims of earlier poets, the
analysis is more than an enthusiastic
source-hunt. If some of the verbal
parallels are remote, others prove
the retentiveness of Wordsworth's
memory, or its transmuting power.
The book gives materials for a reas-
sessment of Wordsworth's place in the
history of descriptive and didactic
verse, with particular reference to
eighteenth-century poets like Beattie,
Young, and Akenside. [Reviewed TLS
376.]

In a striking series of essays G. H.
Hartmann 4 links Wordsworth with
Hopkins, Rilke, and Valery as ex-
amples of a peculiarly modern way of
looking at life and art. His aim is to
find a method of 'criticism without
approach', of complete interpretation.
His success is doubtful, but he writes
cogently about the way in which
Wordsworth's imagination strove to-
wards 'a cognition not only organic
but also immediate and transcendent,
one to which both mind and external
world are necessary'. Accordingly the
poetry is deeply influenced by 'the
continuous ebb and flow of the sus-
taining power', in its imagery of
waters, rivers, the quickening soul in
things, a sense of continuous revela-
tion. After the grievous loss described
in the Immortality Ode he regains
strength when he hears 'the cataracts
blow their trumpets from the steep',

4 The Unmediated Vision, An Interpreta-
tion of Wordsworth, Hopkins, Rilke, and
Valery, by Geoffrey H. Hartmann. Yale
U.P. and O.U.P. pp. xii+206. $5. 40*.

182

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

and in The Prelude, Book XIV, the
climax of the poem occurs with the
vision of the moon over the roaring
waters, emblem of a mind which can
still feed upon infinity. In a final chap-
ter, The New Perseus', Hartmann sees
the problem of the modern poet as
that of 'understanding experience in
its immediacy', which Wordsworth
does through the symbolism of humble
life and his sensitivity to 'atmospheric
media', and the optical phenomenon
of dilation. [Reviewed TLS (1955),
414.]

An admirable selection of Words-
worth's letters from the four chief
modern printed collections has been
made by Philip Wayne, 5 who gives
many of the poet's utterances about
books, authors, and his own work. We
see him in his relations with his liter-
ary friends; in the bosom of his family
discussing domestic and pecuniary
affairs; and though the editor refers
readers to de Selincourt's volumes 'if
they want to trace . . . Wordsworth's
politics, or his love of gardening, or
his concern . . . over some personal
misunderstanding', he gives us ample
material to follow the major events in
his life and to realize his sincerity,
modesty, sense of the ridiculous, his
physical toughness, and essential nobi-
lity of mind.

A new edition of Coleridge's poems 6
made by Morchard Bishop begins 'with
an exact reprinting of all the poems
that appeared in the 1834 Pickering
collected edition, which was the last
that the poet himself saw through the
press'. The poems not there included
are added in the chronological order
of their publication, for Coleridge's
stature is enhanced *by the disentang-
ling of these posthumous additions

5 Letters of William Wordsworth, selec-
ted ... by Philip Wayne. (World's Classics.)
O.U.P. pp. xxv-f 295. 5s.

6 The Poems of Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
with an Introduction by Morchard Bishop.
Macdonald. pp. xlvii-f 650. 105, 6d.

from the body of the work which he
chose to represent him'. Included are
fragments from manuscript sources,
and early versions of The Ancient
Mariner, Dejection, &c., a selection of
notes, a brief chronology of the poet's
life, and eight illustrations. [Reviewed
TLS (1955), 63,]

Coleridge criticism proceeds apace.
Maurice Carpenter's list of acknow-
ledgements is a roll-call of modern
Coleridge scholars. His biography 7 is
written in a breathless snip-snap. It
covers the ground at a great pace, with
abundant detail, becoming at times
a tissue of quotations from letters
adroitly woven with narrative. The
whole is informative, alive, on the
surface, for the author declares, The
life of Coleridge can never be seen as
a tragedy. In fact it could be inter-
preted as a roaring farce, . . , This
would be exaggeration; but exaggera-
tion is the nature of comedy.' There
has been exaggeration of other kinds
in previous Lives of Coleridge, but
there is too little of the Inferno and
Purgatory through which Coleridge
passed to make Mr. Carpenter's a
Divine Comedy. [Reviewed TLS 427.]

Elizabeth Schneider 8 is less light-
hearted in her detailed clinical study
of Coleridge's addiction to opium and
its bearing on Kubla Khan. 'I have
never shared the view that Kubla
Khan is one of the supreme English
poems, though I think it is a good one',
she confesses; 'I have also never shared
the belief that it is a product of the
unconscious mind.' This second belief
she hunts down ruthlessly with a
wealth of medical and other evidence,
testing the statements of De Quincey
and Coleridge about the effects of the

7 The Indifferent Horseman. The Divine
Comedy of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, by
Maurice Carpenter. Elek Books, pp. iv+
368. 255.

8 Coleridge, Opium and 'Kubla Khan', by
Elizabeth Schneider. Chicago U.P. and
C.U.P. (1953). pp. xi+377. 37s. 6d.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

183

drug with reference to experiments in
Kentucky and elsewhere (presumably
not made on imaginative men of
genius?). Opium does not commonly
produce dreams; sensations of float-
ing, of vast extensions in time and
space (cf. De Q.) often occur without
drugging. The book contains interest-
ing information about eighteenth-cen-
tury attitudes to drugs and dreams.
Coleridge did not write Kubla Khan
in a true dream but maybe in 'a sort
of reverie'; it is best regarded as a con-
scious attempt at the 'technique of the
day-dream'. Miss Schneider attacks
Lowes's Hartleyan account of the
genesis of the poem, and argues that
Coleridge drew on Landor's Gebir,
Southey's Thalaba, and Sotheby's
translation of Wieland's Oberon. It
was probably written between Sep-
tember 1799 and 12 June 1800, which
would make these influences possible.
In that case Coleridge's love for Sara
Hutchinson may explain the abrupt
shift from Kubla and his summer
palace c to an irrelevant Abyssinian
maid . . . and the poet himself . . .
suddenly injected in the first person
... to tell us that he has had (and lost)
a glimpse of Paradise'. The ingenious
argument throws light on the poet's
mind in crucial years, but does not
carry complete conviction. [Reviewed
TLS 455.]

Hitherto a shadowy projection of
Coleridge's misery and yearning, Sara
Hutchinson has suddenly become a
vital figure in her own right. All her
letters to Coleridge have perished, but
those to her family survive, and Kath-
leen Coburn has edited 169 of them,
covering her life 'from her early days
in Yorkshire to within a few weeks of
her death ... at Rydal Mount'. 9 As
the Introduction declares, they pro-

9 The Letters of Sara Hutchinson from
1800 to 1835, ed. by Kathleen Coburn.
Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. xxxviii-j-474.
2. 2s.

vide 'one of the most intimate pictures
we have of that great circle'. In addi-
tion they rectify the somewhat acid
accounts of her given by Hartley and
Sara Coleridge; explain why she be-
came so important a member of the
Wordsworth family; and reveal that
she met Coleridge at least five times
after they parted in 1810, and always
regarded him shrewdly and with affec-
tion. [Reviewed TLS 139.]

It was enterprising of E. J. Lovell 10
to collect the 'Conversations' of Lord
Byron as described by the 1 50 acquain-
tances who left a record of his say-
ings. Without making an 'omnium-
gatherum' the editor gives an impres-
sive corpus of 'Byroniana', arranged
chronologically, in which we see the
poet adapting himself to his company,
now posturing, now leg-pulling, frank,
generous, witty, serious. Lovell sum-
marizes in his Introduction the rela-
tionships and diverse points of view
involved. He has not printed Byron's
own accounts of his conversations or
the Conversations published by Med-
win and Lady Blessington; he includes
new material, including pages from
the Countess Guicciolfs Vie de Lord
Byron en Italie. [Reviewed TLS (1955),
118.]

Four works on Shelley deserve atten-
tion. Peter Butter 11 contributes a fresh
and perceptive study of what the poet
called 'peculiar images which reside
in the inner cave of thought' and re-
garded as characteristic of each indi-
vidual. He has read Carl Grabo, but
his concern is not with sources but the
poems, in which Shelley sought 'to
master and understand his experience
and to relate his own particular feel-
ings to his general ideas. . . . His

10 His Very Self and Voice: Collected
Conversations of Lord Byron> ed. with an
Introduction and Notes by Ernest J. Lovell,
Jr. New York and London: Macmillan.
pp. xlvi+676. $7.50. 42s.

11 Shelley's Idols of the Cave, by Peter
Butter. Edinburgh U.P. pp. vii+228. 15s.

184

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

favourite images constitute a symbolic
shorthand language for expressing
ideas as well as feelings.' In his love
poetry he used characteristic image-
clusters such as those connected with
the idea of 'the soul within the soul'
which are traced from Alastor
onwards. 'His carefully constructed
landscapes and their inhabitants are
one . . . means of symbolising ideas
and mental states.' Another method,
'by personifying mental states as
spirits, fiends, &c., by giving "a soul
and a voice" to desires, hopes, intui-
tions', is examined. The images of the
One and the Many are explored, and
Shelley's philosophic and scientific
knowledge is shown emerging in
poetry. All these factors are united in
Prometheus Unbound. Butter notes
also the increase in clarity and preci-
sion in Shelley's last work. He con-
cludes that the poet was a precursor
of the Symbolists, and anticipated the
moderns in realizing 'the unmeaning
distinction of immateriality'. [Re-
viewed TLS 530. MLR (1955), 332.]

In The Deep Truth C. E. Pulos 12
recognizes the important influence of
political radicalism, empiricism, Pla-
tonism, and Christianity, but 'attempts
a new approach to Shelley's thought
through an investigation of his hither-
to neglected scepticism'. Pulos finds
that he harmonized 'the so-called con-
tradictions' of his thought through
the scepticism which he learned from
Hume and from the Academical Ques-
tions (1805) of Sir William Drum-
mond, whom he called 'the most acute
metaphysical critic of the age'. The
British sceptics supported his own
sense of the primacy of subjective
feelings in human knowledge. He re-
jected Malthus, Paley, and Dugald
Stewart as revivers of superstition or
supporters of mankind's oppressors.
Accepting the idea of Necessity he
linked it to his belief in perfectibility.
Scepticism prepared the way for Shel-

ley's acceptance of Plato, but made
inevitable his divergence from him;
for while Plato ascends progressively
from particular beauties to Beauty
the Idea, Shelley (holding a different
theory of knowledge) tends to seek the
Ideal in its earthly manifestations. In
fine Shelley was no 'confused follower
of Berkeley' but reconciled 'empiri-
cism and Platonism through the posi-
tive issues of scepticism probability
and faith'.

A Study of 'Alastor^ takes us from
Shelley's abstractions to the tantalizing
allegory in which he embodied some
of them. After a prefatory note by
A. E. Dubois 'On Intuitive Experi-
ences' dividing them into seven pos-
sible states of mystical achievement,
W. H. Hildebrand discusses the prob-
lems raised by Alastor. He argues that
the veiled maiden is the Poet's Baiter-
ego, his epipsyche', though not a fully
Platonic conception; Alastor is not an
evil genius as Peacock (and Butter)
have asserted, but 'the spirit of Soli-
tude' necessary for poetic self -develop-
ment; the veiled maiden is its instru-
ment working through physical and
metaphysical nature. The hero is not
just Shelley, but the idealized Poet,
who is contrasted with earthy mate-
rialists and with poetic renegades such
as Wordsworth and Coleridge. The in-
sistence on death is deepened because
Shelley had recently been thought to
be dying of tuberculosis. The wander-
ings by boat and on foot owe some-
thing to Southey and allegorize man's
journey through life. The final lament
over the Waste Land bewails the state
of the world when poets are denied
or perish. The poem shifts between
several levels of meaning; it is con-
sistent to the very end, and although

12 The Deep Truth: A Study of Shelley's
Scepticism, by C. E. Pulos. Lincoln : Ne-
braska U,P. pp. 124. $2.75.

13 A Study of 'Alastor', by William H.
Hildebrand. Kent, Ohio : Kent State Univ.
Bulletin, Research Series 11. pp. 70.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

185

'certainly not Shelley's greatest poem,
it belongs with his great ones'.

Sylva Norman 14 has written a de-
lightful history of Shelley's reputation
which begins with his death and the
people he left behind, the chorus of
regret and blame, Charles Lamb's re-
grettable flippancy, the break-up of
the Pisan circle, squabbles over relics
('the incredible Battle of the Heart'),
the meanness of Byron, Trelawney's
generosity, Mary's attempts at getting
an allowance out of the poet's father,
her life in London, cultivated by Moore
and other writers on Byron; till 'Be-
tween these parading, coy, and en-
vious egotists, who is to hope for a
clear vision of Shelley?' We are shown
the fostering of his fame by old
friends; Medwin's researches and
attempt at blackmailing Mary; her
death, and the cult created by young
Percy's wife and other 'Shrine-
Builders'; Sir Percy himself with his
steam yachts, private theatricals, and
talk of 'me old father'; the rogues and
forgers; then the Tre-Raphaelites in
Pursuit', and the founding of the
Shelley Society by Furnivall, son of
the poet's surgeon; and so to the twen-
tieth century with Leslie Hotson's
publication of The Lost Letters to
Harriet, the modern fictitious biogra-
phies and partial judgements. It is a
remarkable study of the ebb and flow
of a reputation which 'outrides exclu-
sive movements, temporal sects, and
the kind of interpretation that displays
the critic chasing his own tail'. [Re-
viewed TLS (1955), 6.]

There was a lull in Keats scholar-
ship, but Everyman reprinted in its
larger format Lord Houghton's Life
and Letters of John Keats 15 with a new
note on the letters by Lewis Gibbs

14 Flight of the Skylark: The Develop-
ment of Shelley's Reputation^ by Sylva
Norman. London : Reinhardt, and Okla-
homa U.P. pp. xiii+304. 25s.

15 The Life and Letters of John Keats, by
Lord Houghton. Dent, pp. xix+231. 65.

which briefly describes the poet's chief
correspondents. An important publi-
cation was Robert Gittings's study of
the poems written in the great year of
his inspiration. 16 Each chapter has to
do with the writing of 100 or more
lines of Keats's poetry. We learn how
the first 157 lines of Hyperion are
associated with a fleeting obsession
with Reynolds's cousin Jane Cox,
whose 'rich eastern look', with Egyp-
tian sculpture in the British Museum,
inspired the portrait of Thea, 'God-
dess "of the infant world'. The remain-
der of Book I and beginning of Book
II owe much to the 'modified Miltonic
manner' of Wordsworth's Excursion
and Gary's Dante, but also to Milton's
Nativity Ode. The sonnet, 'Bright star!
would I were stedfast as thou art!',
first drafted between Books I and II
of Hyperion, was inspired by Mrs.
Isabella Jones, about whom Gittings
has discovered a good deal. Keats's
feeling for her produced some lyrics,
St. Agnes Eve, and The Eve of St.
Mark, which include memories of his
visits to Chichester and Stansted. The
place of Fanny Brawne (and of Dry-
den) in eliciting the Psyche ode and
the sonnets on Sleep and Fame, is
shown. The Nightingale and Grecian
Urn odes are fitted into the complex
pattern of Keats's preoccupations in
May 1819. From Lamia to The Fall
of Hyperion a growing despair was
intertwined with reminiscences of his
reading to produce recurrent images
of 'the feast and the awakening, the
terror'. Yet soon he composed the Ode
to Autumn, 'the most serene poem in
the English language', fruit of his
Winchester walks and the reading of
Chatterton's Aella, Tt is the supreme
paradox', writes Gittings, 'that in his
own eyes, this year of triumph had

16 John Keats: The Living 'Year, 21 Sep-
tember 1818 to 21 September 1819, by
Robert Gittings. Heinemann. pp. xv+247.
16s.

186

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

been a year of catastrophe.' An ex-
citing book. [Reviewed TLS 232. MLR
(1955), 72.]

The poems of another unfortunate,
John Clare, have been selected by
James Reeves 17 from Tibbie's two-
volume edition (1935). The editor's
Introduction gives a judicious biogra-
phical and critical summary. 'He was
the absolute opposite of an occasional
poet', for he wrote continuously and
unremittingly, at his best with great
tenderness of feeling and a sense of
organic harmony between poet and
nature ... a quiet ecstasy and inward
rapture*. [Reviewed TLS 311.]

Sir Charles Tennyson aids the re-
viving reputation of his grandfather
in six essays 18 on aspects of Tenny-
son's poetry. As if to startle the 'Lawn
Tennyson' critics, he begins with a
genial discussion of the poet as a hu-
morist. Next come essays on Tenny-
son's politics and religion. The latter
refutes T. S. Eliot's assertion that he
faced neither the darkness nor the light
in his later years. The variety of the
versification is shown. Manuscript
drafts of the Idylls of the King throw
light on his methods of composing
and arranging those poems. Then fol-
lows another confutation of Eliot, who
declares that Tennyson 'could not tell
a story at all'; and the book ends with
a discussion of Tennyson's methods
of reading his poetry drawn from the
accounts of those who heard him read
and from cylindrical phonograph re-
cords. [Reviewed TLS 358.]

Browning appears in the 'Penguin
Poets', edited by W. E. Williams 19
whose breezy Introduction, in rightly
emphasizing that the poet *is not really
difficult at all, once the reader has be-

17 Selected Poems of John Clare, ed. with
an Introduction by James Reeves. Heine-
mann. pp. xxix-f-143. 7s. 6d.

18 Six Tennyson Essays, by Sir Charles
Tennyson. Cassell. pp. ix+197. 15s.

19 Browning, A Selection, by W. E. Wil-
liams. Penguin Books, pp. 345. 2s. 6d.

come familiar with his method and
idiom', follows the modern fashion of
decrying his ideas: 'He was not a deep
thinker and he has very little light to
throw upon the religious and scienti-
fic controversies of Victorian Eng-
land.' 'He has very little to say about
nature, but he is fascinated by human
nature, and endowed with a rare
poetic insight into its qualities and
complexities.'

Betty Miller 20 presents a rich store
of letters from Elizabeth Barrett to
Miss Mitford revealing the growth of
a valuable friendship between two
very different literary ladies, both
tied to uncomprehending fathers, the
one living 'in a state of total depen-
dence', the other 'for many years . . .
the sole financial prop of her own
household'. The years covered by
these letters, 1836-46, were amongst
the most significant and formative in
the life of Elizabeth Barrett', and we
watch the growth of her reputation,
her illness, her incarceration at Wim-
pole Street, and the love affair with
Browning which marred the friend-
ship, since Miss Mitford disapproved
of marriage, and of Robert. The cor-
respondence reveals how full a life the
invalid poetess lived in her stuffy room,
the keen interest she took in men and
affairs, her often sparkling comments
on writers. [Reviewed TLS 486.]

Edmund G. Gardner's edition (1912)
of D. G. Rossetti's Poems and Trans-
lations 21 has been reprinted by Dent
It contains his Poems, 1870, his Son-
nets and Songs, his Sonnets for Pic-
tures, and his translations from the
Italian, including the Vita Nuova. The

20 Elizabeth Barrett to Miss Mitford: The
Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett
Browning to Mary Russell Mitford, ed. and
introduced by Betty Miller. Murray, pp.
xviii4-284. 25s.

21 Rossetti's Poems and Translations, In-
troduction by Edmund G. Gardner. Dent:
Everyman's Library, No. 627. pp. xxiv+
406. 6s.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

187

editor omitted most of Rossetti's prose
introductions as out of date, supply-
ing new notes from his own deep Ital-
ian scholarship.

Among the valuable results of C. W.
Hatfield's long years of labour on the
Brontes is his new edition of Emily's
poems 22 in which he makes important
additions to the work which he pre-
pared with Clement Shorter, published
in 1923. While arranging the poems
chronologically he shows their group-
ing in the manuscripts and many
variants. Moreover, since the 'Gondal
Poems' manuscript shows that 'many
of the poems which had been con-
sidered to be of a personal character
(owing to Gondal references having
been deleted or altered before the
poems were printed) were apparently
. . . part of the Gondal epic which ab-
sorbed the minds of Emily and Anne
during many years', he gives the Gon-
dal references. Fannie E. Ratchford
contributes a note on the Gondal story,
and a list of the poems 'arranged as an
Epic of GondaF, This enables us to
appreciate the peculiar romantic tone
of many pieces, and to contrast it with
others written in her own person.

Mary Coleridge, daughter of S.T.C's
great-nephew, wrote most of her
poems before 1900. She lived till 1906,
but only a few were published before
Newbolt made 'his collection (1907)
of 237 pieces out of about 300 avail-
able to him in autograph'. Most of the
original manuscripts have disappeared
but Theresa Whistler 23 has had access
to many duplicates, and she has 'sifted
a further 31 ... from about a hun-
dred pieces, probably all the unpub-
lished verses that still exist'. The col-
lection gives 'all of her verses whose

22 The Complete Poems of Emily Jane
Bronte, ed. from the manuscripts by C. W.
Hatfield. Columbia U.P. and O.U.P. pp.
xxiii+262. 21s.

23 The Collected Poems of Mary Cole-
ridge, ed. with an Introduction by Theresa
Whistler. Hart-Davis, pp. 266. 15s.

interest survives the passing occasion
and which bear the stamp of her in-
dividuality'. They are arranged chro-
nologically, and the editor provides
a charming 60-page essay on the
poet's life and personality. The gene-
ral level is higher than Emily Bronte's,
though Mary Coleridge had less
power at her best. [Reviewed TLS
586.]

2. Novels and Novelists

R. W. Chapman brings to a fitting
close the fine Oxford illustrated edi-
tion of Jane Austen's novels 24 by
bringing together the Juvenilia (from
Volume the First [pub. 1933], Volume
the Second [pub. 1922], and Volume
the Third [pub. 1951]); Lady Susan;
fragments of The Watsons and Sandi-
ton; the Plan of a Novel; opinions of
Mansfield Park and Emma; a few
verses, and prayers. There is a useful
index of persons, fictitious and real.
[Reviewed TLS (1955), 263.]

The ordinary reader could not wish
for a better introduction to Scott's life
than the study by Hesketh Pearson 25
which, if mainly a 'foreground' work,
shows the great novelist as he lived
among his family and friends, in all
his geniality, sympathy, simplicity,
and courage in affliction. 'What a life
mine has been ! ' Scott reflected when
54. We lay down his biography echo-
ing the amazement, and adding 'What
a man indeed!' Pearson gives a full
account of his progress as a writer,
landowner, and investor, and makes
good use of the letters and the accu-
rate transcript of the Journal. [Re-
viewed TLS (1955), 23.]

The centenary of Scott's son-in-law

24 The Works of Jane Austen: Vol. VI.
Minor Works, now first collected and ed.
from the MSS. by R. W. Chapman. O.U.P.
pp. ix+474. 21s.

25 Walter Scott: His Life and Personality,
by Hesketh Pearson. Methuen. pp.xi+295.
21s.

188

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Lockhart was celebrated by a bio-
graphy 26 in which Marion Lochhead
carried out the task long planned by
Alexander Mitchell. Armed with the
latter's notes, with letters in the Na-
tional Library of Scotland, and family
help including a list of Lockhart's
contributions to the Quarterly Review,
she explores a personality long mis-
understood. Under 'the fierce fever of
satire and ridicule that possessed him'
in youth lay sympathy and stoicism.
Lockharf s relations with Blackwood
and the Quarterly are made clear, and
'the unholy delight* with which the
Scorpion 'stung the face of a dying
poet' is regretfully admitted. (But
Keats was not then 'coughing his
lungs into dissolution'.) Later his criti-
cism mellowed, though he was merci-
less to Hunt's Lord Byron and Heine's
Germany. He regarded the novel as
the modern equivalent of the Addi-
sonian essay, but his own four novels
lacked vitality, though Peter's Letters
gave a brilliant picture of Edinburgh
society. His love-letters to Sophia
Scott are charming and unaffected.
His Life of Scott Miss Lochhead calls
'one of the great creative works of
literature, its author one of the su-
preme artists'. Exaggerated praise, but
it is a noble monument to both author
and subject. [Reviewed TLS 498.]

Anne Bronte's The Tenant of Wild-
fell Hall has been reprinted with a
short Preface by Margaret Lane 27 in
which she justly claims that this 'out-
spoken tale of profligacy, drunken-
ness, adultery', though 'not a great
work of art by any means, . . . still has
power and imagination'.

Hitherto George Eliot has been
known chiefly through her novels and
the Life by her husband who pruned

26 John Gibson Lockhart, by Marion
Lochhead. Murray, pp. xii 4-324. 25s.

27 The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, by Anne
Bronte. Preface by Margaret Lane. Dent :
Everyman's Library, no. 685. pp. xi-f 389.
6s.

her letters to show the ideal woman.
Now, after twenty years of toil, G. S.
Haight has published the first three of
seven volumes of letters from and to
the novelist, with extracts from diaries
and journals. 28 In all there are to be
3,106 items, over 2,100 by George
Eliot, and the remainder to or about
her. The present volumes end when
she is preparing Romola. There is a
great difference between the stilted
early letters to her teacher, Maria
Lewis, and those to the Brays and the
Hennells when she was breaking into
'the cheerfulness of "large moral re-
gions'", getting to know the face and
mind of Europe. That her intellect
was 'vast and massy', as Haight de-
clares, is not proven by these volumes,
though Anna Jameson in 1856 called
her 'first rate in point of intellect and
science and attainments of every kind,
but considered also as very free in all
her opinions as to morals and religion'.
By then she was living with Lewes and
had few friends. The letters about
their union have a dignified reason-
ableness showing her growth in sta-
ture. She was a fine grave letter writer,
intensely interested in everyday life,
in personalities, books, and publish-
ing. The third volume has many letters
about the Mr. Liggins who claimed
to have written Scenes of Clerical Life
and Adam Bede; amusing now, but
not to George Eliot, who took herself
very seriously. The editor annotates
such episodes adroitly; he has done
his work well. [Reviewed TLS 738.]

A study by Wilfred Stone 29 of
George Eliot's admirer 'Mark Ruther-
ford' who excelled even her in depict-
ing Victorian provincial Dissent,

28 The George Eliot Letters. Vols. I-III
(1836-61), ed. by Gordon S. Haight. O.U.P.
I, pp. kxvii+378. II, pp. 513. Ill, pp. 475.
7. 7s.

29 Religion and Art of William Hale White
('Mark Rutherford'), by Wilfred Stone.
Stanford U.P. and O.U.P. pp. vii+240.
$3. 24s.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

189

should revive interest in a neglected
author. Hale White, a civil servant,
began secretly to write novels at the
age of 50 which were 'for all their
fictional disguises, obvious self -con-
fessions of a man whose aim was not
to achieve literary fame, but to share
a burden of spiritual pain'. The bio-
graphy takes us into the spiritual con-
flicts accompanying the loss of ortho-
doxy and a lifelong attempt at finding
another Faith, whether in Secularism,
Wordsworthian nature-worship, or
Spinozism. The six 'novels' are exam-
ined in relation to Hale White's per-
sonal experience. The Autobiography
and Deliverance were plainly auto-
biographical; Clara Hopgood is 4 a
series of conversation-pieces' on his
favourite topics. Catharine Furze is
packed with reminiscences of the so-
cial and religious life of Bedford. He
never wrote about a character 'with-
out having somebody before his mind's
eye'; he had little inventive power. In
all his books he worked over his own
problems with special reference to
religious doubt, incompatibility, the
frustrations of marriage. In writing he
vainly sought deliverance from him-
self. His style was on the whole level
and plain but not lacking in intense
penetration and occasional elevation,
for it was 'intimately related to his
moral impulses'. [Reviewed TLS
(1955), 332.]

Dickens continues to evoke volumes
significant of his perennial popularity.
Barnaby Rudge came out in the 'New
Oxford Illustrated Dickens' with an
Introduction by Kathleen Tillotson 30
which discusses the original idea (in
1836) to write a serious historical
novel whose subject must challenge
comparison with Scott, shows how its
topicality increased before publica-

30 Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots
of 'Eighty^ by Charles Dickens, with ... an
Introduction by Kathleen Tillotson. O.U.P.
pp. xxv +634. 12s. 6d.

tion in 1841, and summarizes the
mingling of fact with fiction.

Emlyn Williams 31 has collected the
readings with which, like the Master,
he gripped audiences in Britain and
America. They show considerable skill
in adaptation. He did not choose
Dickens's own versions because mod-
ern audiences do not always know
the books well, hence much delicate
adjustment, cutting, and bridge-work
were necessary. The adaptation of
Bleak House 'for solo presentation in
three acts' is a daring piece containing
two major alterations in the story. The
shorter excerpts are very varied, and
the adapter hopes that his book may
help 'to revive the ancient and richly
rewarding pastime of "reading aloud"
among private circles of friends'. Ber-
nard Darwin gives an account of
Dickens's tours.

Michael Harrison 32 used his own
wanderings in Strood, Rochester,
Gravesend, Camden Town, the
Temple to discuss Dickens's life and
movements. The result is a rambling,
pleasantly garrulous affair in which
present and past intermingle, and we
are directed (well this side idolatry)
to Dickens's methods of work, his
family, matrimonial troubles, friend-
ships, with parallels between him and
Edgar Allan Poe. The portrait which
emerges lacks firm outline, because of
the casual method.

In a stimulating article Gwendolyn
Needham 33 argues that David Copper-
field was greatly affected by the theme
of the 'impulse of an undisciplined
heart': 'it emphasizes and illumines

31 Readings from Dickens, by Emlyn Wil-
liams, with an Introduction by Bernard
Darwin. Heinemann. pp. xx+ 164. 10s. 6 d.

32 Charles Dickens : A Sen timen tal Journey
in Search of an Unvarnished Portrait, by
Michael Harrison. Cassell (1953). pp. 270.
2ls.

33 The Undisciplined Heart of David
Copperfield', by Gwendolyn B. Needham.
Nineteenth Century Fiction, IX, no. 2. pp.
81-107. Berkeley : Univ. of California Press,

190

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

the character of David . . . ; it works
within the novel's frame of introspec-
tion to shape the structure; it gives
deeper significance to a closer integra-
tion of minor episodes with the novel's
larger unity; thus it contributes largely
to the novel's total effect and pervad-
ing tone'.

An original defence of Thackeray's
novels, starred with admirable cita-
tions, was made by Geoffrey Tillot-
son 34 who sought to define 'the Thack-
erayan Oneness'. Thackeray linked
his characters by consanguinity, kept
mainly to certain places, imposed no
set pattern on his stories but let the
story make the pattern ('of vastness
and never-endingness') with continu-
ity and tone variously achieved.
Thackeray's 'intrusion' into his novels
was that of the historian in fiction and
as such he commented on his figures.
He disdained 'the tricks and surprises
of the novelist's art', so even his end-
ings led out into the future. If he was
'still virtually living in the eighteenth
century', he could satirize well and
moralize thoughtfully on certain as-
pects of contemporary society. His
works still 'address themselves squarely
to the ordinary man*, for Thackeray
shares and reveals the common mix-
ture of virtue and weakness in all of
us. He is a novelist for the older, ex-
perienced reader, and Tillotson ex-
plains why. One of the appendixes
shows 'how much was owed him by
two of the three novelists who, with
Jane Austen, form the great tradition
according to Dr. Leavis'. These two
are George Eliot and Henry James.
[Reviewed TLS 800.]

Trollope needs no defence just now,
and the Oxford Illustrated edition pur-
sues its exhilarating way with the final
tale of the Talliser series', 35 which

34 Thackeray the Novelist, by Geoffrey
Tillotson. C.U.P, pp. xv+312. 22s. 6d.

35 The Duke's Children, by Anthony
Trollope, with a Preface by Chauncey B.

lifts the Duke's history out of the dol-
drums in which it lay at the end of
The Prime Minister. C. B. Tinker's
Preface tells about the unpublished
first draft (now at Yale University)
which was severely cut before serial
publication, and points out some fea-
tures of the book. A useful 'Who's
Who' gives references to other novels
in which many characters occur. [Re-
viewed TLS 823.]

A small but valuable work was pub-
lished at the end of 1953. The Two
Heroines of Plumplington of which
many devotees of Barsetshire had
never heard, since it appeared after
Trollope's death, never to be reprin-
ted till now in book form. The story,
with its two outraged fathers keeping
apart two determined young men from
two heroines, is pleasant enough. As
John Hampden asserts, 'Only the
ghosts of his powers remained when
he came to write The Two Heroines,
but the ghosts are there; the story is
as unmistakably Anthony Trollope's,
as it is certainly his last farewell to
Barsetshire.'

Walter F. Wright's timely study of
Meredith's novels 37 (1953) interprets
his art as the manifestation of his quest
for truth. First we are shown 'his basic
concepts of life and the literary theory
they evoked'. Meredith's evolutionary
view of nature made him regard man
as ever veering between 'ascetic rocks
and the sensual whirlpools', egocen-
tric in political and private life, and
especially in love, tending to 'rose-
pink' sentimentality or 'dirty-drab'
sordidness. Preaching comic balance,
Tinker. Illustrations by Charles Mozley.
O.U.P. pp. xix+639. 255.

36 The Two Heroines of Plumplington, by
Anthony Trollope. Introduction by John
Hampden; illustrated with Lithographs by
Lynton Lamb. Deutsch (1953). pp. 112.
125. 6d.

37 Art and Substance in George Meredith:
A Study in Narrative, by Walter F. Wright.
Lincoln: Nebraska U.P. (1953). pp.ix+211.
$3.75.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

191

Meredith insisted that in art 'between
realism and idealism there is no natu-
ral conflict. This completes that.' Most
at ease in romance and comedy, 'in
tragedy he was least comfortable. . . .
It was in tragicomedy that he was
most experimental and original, and
. . . contributed most to succeeding
writers.' Wright's main eight chapters
are grouped in pairs, viewing 'the four
major perspectivesthe comic, the
romantic, the tragic and pathetic, and
the tragicomic'. Thus the chapter on
'Discipline by the Comic Spirit', which
examines several novels, is followed by
one more fully analysing The Egoist;
'Romance or a Vision of Truth' pre-
cedes 'Beauchamp's Quixotic Career';
an account of the tragic experiments
is followed by 'Richard Feverel's
Tragic Ordeal'; a consideration of
tragicomedy precedes One of our
Conquerors. The author finds in The
Shaving of Shagpat a pattern of obser-
vation and allegory which reappears
later as Meredith illustrates the axiom:
'Who seeks the shadow to the sub-
stance sinneth.'

George Gissing's reputation should
be augmented by Mabel C. Don-
nelly's 38 revaluation based on unpub-
lished letters, family information, and
judicious study of the works. The
rebel against provincial morality and
drabness found similar shortcomings
in the metropolis, and lived in a fero-
cious irritability. The world is for me
a collection of phenomena, which are
to be studied and reproduced artisti-
cally', he boasted in 1883, but as Miss
Donnelly shows, he was 'recording
like a terror-smitten child the pheno-
mena with which his senses were bom-
barded'. Always emotionally involved,
he worked over again and again his
relations with his pathetic, debauched
wife, his anger at worldly failure and

38 George Gissing, Grave Comedian, by
Mabel Collias Donnelly. Harvard U.P. and
O.U.P. pp. 244.

mean surroundings, his pity and loath-
ing for the 'depressed classes'. Only at
the end did he achieve a relatively
equable stoicism. As an artist he de-
veloped considerably, from shrill po-
lemics to a thoughtful balance, from
clumsy construction to easy handling
of story and dialogue. The author dis-
cusses his relationship to French and
Russian realists. A significant figure in
his battles with Mrs. Grundy and with
the novel-form, he was a 'grave come-
dian' because he preferred the 'joke in
earnest' to the broadly comic or even
the tragic. [Reviewed TLS 699.]

R. L. Green who has done much to
put the cult of 'Lewis Carroll' on a
scientific basis made available in 1953
the surviving Diaries, 29 which should
dissipate the rash speculations of
amateur psychologists, though one of
the lost volumes may refer to the 'love
affair' postulated by some literary de-
tectives. The editor's task in tracking
down allusions was immense; on the
whole one can commend his practice
of inserting his explanations into the
text in square brackets. The Diaries
throw light on the whole of Dodgson's
life. The editor sets the often trivial
details into place, and discusses the
growth of the comic conceptions.
There are also reminiscences of Car-
roll by his nieces and his last child-
friend (Enid Stevens). The Appendixes
contain some unpublished writings.
[Reviewed TLS 136,]

Derek Hudson saw the Diaries and
other material before he wrote his bio-
graphy 40 and even consulted a grapho-
logist about Dodgson's handwriting,
and quotes a phrenologist's report.
This useful, though not definitive, bio-
graphy traces the main features of
Dodgson's career and interests, show-

39 The Diaries of Lewis Carroll, ed. by
Roger Lancelyn Green. In two volumes.
Cassell (1953). pp.xxvi+604. 3(Xs. each.

40 Lewis Carroll, by Derek Hudson. Con-
stable, pp. xiii+354. 21s.

192

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

ing the effects of his stammer, his
industry and meticulousness (which
made him a nuisance in College), his
generosity and humour. There are
sensible comments on the suggestion
that he fell in love with Ellen Terry.
His devotion to a series of Alice Lid-
dells may have been a compensation
for his inability to form friendships
with grown women. Hudson compares
versions of Alice, and refuses to iden-
tify the characters with figures in Uni-
versity or national politics (cf. A. L.
Taylor, YW xxxiii. 247). [Reviewed
TLS 740.]

Students of regional novels will find
in Lucien Leclaire's classification 41 and
discussion of their history in the past
1 50 years much to debate. He divides
the period into three main phases.
First, 1800-30, when interest in the
picturesque, the simple man and his
background, &c., produced the Irish
novels of Edgeworth and Morgan, the
Scottish of Scott, Susan Ferrier, &c. ?
England contributing little at this time.
Second, the period 1830-70 producing
the regional novel par surcroit, when
the atmosphere of particular places
was represented, and the direct expe-
rience of the author produced the
vision of a past described with fidelity,
often with use of dialect. Third, the
period 1870-1950, of 'conscious re-
gionalism' in which the author per-
ceives five different attitudes. In a final
section Leclaire argues that the re-
gional novel exists as a distinct genre,
discusses its characteristics and the
conditions under which it has flou-
rished. There is a long bibliography.
[ReviewedrL5(1955),276J(Seep.250.)

The Annual Bulletin of English
Studies 42 of Cairo University for 1954

41 Le Roman Regionaliste dans les lies
Britanniques 1 800-1 950, by Lucien Leclaire.
Paris : *Les Belles Lettres'. pp. 300.

42 Annual Bulletin of English Studies,
prepared by the Department of English,
Cairo University. General Editor: Magdi
Wahba. Cairo, 1954. pp. 168.

was largely concerned with nineteenth-
century work, N. Y. El-Ayouty in an
essay on 'George Eliot as a Tragic
Writer' shows the action beginning
'with some error of omission or com-
mission related to character in certain
social surroundings. . . . The story
shows its inevitable consequences as
working in an opposite direction to
that intended by the character.' An
article on Trometheus and Epime-
theus' by Louis Awad is accompanied
by a bibliography of Creative Prome-
thean Literature (classical) and an-
other of modern (mainly nineteenth
century) uses of the Prometheus story.
There is an essay on 'The Literary
Interpretation of Egypt (1835-1850)'
by Rashad Rushdy; and another on
'Woman's Debt to John Stuart Mill'
by Bothaina A. Mohamed.

3. Other Prose

Too late for consideration in YW
xxxiv came John E. Jordan's analysis
of De Quincey's critical method. 43 The
book reconciles conflicting opinions
about De Quincey, by showing that in
him 'the preceptist and the romantic'
merge. Jordan thinks him primarily
'a psychological critic, interested in
the mind of the author and the reader'.
He begins with the latter, 'more espe-
cially with his own reactions'. His
method, briefly, 'is to feel an effect,
analyse its cause, attempt to make it
concrete or to recreate it, and then to
trace it back to some precept, or re-
construct the age or the individual
which produced it'. Jordan considers
De Quincey's views on the nature of
literature as 'the science of human
passions', 'fine thinking and passion-
ate conceptions'. His love of mystery
made him seek the symbolic and sub-
lime in art; yet the superstructure of

43 Thomas De Quincey, Literary Critic:
His Method and Achievement, by John E.
Jordan. Univ. of California Press and
C.UJP. (dated 1952). pp. ix+301. $3.75. 28s.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

193

his criticism is logical analysis. His
acute analysis of imaginative effects,
his biographical and historical ap-
proaches, and his theory of rhetoric
are examined to explain the narrow-
ness but also the penetrating origin-
ality of his pronouncements.

From America too comes a detailed
check-list of Carlyle's early reading. 44
There are over 300 items, chronologi-
cally arranged according to his access
to them, beginning with his singing
the ballad of Blind Harry in 1803, and
ending with his arrival in sight of Lon-
don humming the ballad of Johnnie
Cock. (Did he get them from books
or oral tradition?) We are told when
he read or bought or quoted from
each book; his opinion of it is sum-
marized, with references given. The
printing is by multilith process. [Re-
viewed MLN 439.]

M. St. John Packe's Life of John
Stuart Mill, 45 besides being the first
satisfactory biography of that great
writer, is important for students of
literature because, as F. A. Hayek
writes in a short Preface: Though the
emphasis of the book is on John Stuart
Mill the man, rather than on the philo-
sopher and economist, the nature of his
influence upon the intellectual life of
his time stands out all the more clearly
against the background of his whole
life.' The true story of Harriet Taylor
is at last told. Packe keeps excellent
balance between Mill's many activities
and interests. There are portraits of
Carlyle, Sterling, Harriet Martineau,
Herbert Spencer; and the current of
contemporary ideas is deftly traced.
[ReviewedrLS(1955),276.](Seep.250.)

In a shorter volume (1953) Karl

44 Carlyle's Early Reading to 1834, -with
an Introductory Essay on his Intellectual
Development, by Hill Shine. Lexington:
Univ. of Kentucky Libraries: Margaret I.
King Library (1953). pp. 353.

The Life of John Stuart Mill, by
Michael St. John Packe. Seeker & Warburg,
pp. xvi+567. 42s.

B 5641

Britton 46 sketches Mill's life and teach-
ing, showing how he modified his
father's Utilitarianism in ethics, poli-
tics, logic, and scientific method. His
discovery that feeling should be 'at
least as valuable as thought, and Poetry
not only on a par with, but the neces-
sary condition of, any true and com-
prehensive Philosophy' was not pecu-
liar to him but explains much in the
social and literary criticism of the Vic-
torian period.

Another masterly biography is Rus-
kin's by Joan Evans, 47 who, more than
her predecessors, sees him as the artiste
manque pursuing 'that mystery which,
in our total ignorance of its nature,
we call "beauty" ' through a life com-
plicated by his home-environment, his
own vanity and neuroses. It is a study
in self -education and self-destruction.
We follow his adventures among mas-
terpieces, and watch him set up 'his
own word picture in competition with
the painted landscape of a master'.
The author does not perhaps make
enough of this 'creative criticism', but
she notes his descriptive powers, and
traces the growth and decay of his
mind in his works. 'In many ways The
Seven Lamps . . is Ruskin's best book.
It has a highly organised plan, and fol-
lows it constantly; it is self-contained,
and does what it sets out to do.' To
read the five volumes of Modern
Painters is to 'end with a melancholy
sense of the author's intellectual de-
cline' which shows itself in the weak-
ening of style, and an inability to find
'in pure Beauty a sufficient light for
his path'. In general she is a good guide
to what is best in Ruskin's literary
handling of his material, whether artis-
tic or moral; and she treats his mar-
riage and later loves with tact and for-
bearance.

46 John Stuart Mill, by Karl Britton.
Penguin Books (1953). pp. 224. 2s. 6d.

47 John Ruskin, by Joan Evans. Cape,
pp. 447. 25s.

194

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

A (very expensive) reprint of Mat-
thew Arnold's pamphlet 48 England and
the Italian Question (1859) was well
worth making, for, as its editor M. M.
Bevington asserts, it marked 'his initia-
tion into national controversy', since
Fitzjames Stephens's reply in the
Saturday Review (also given here) be-
gan a long duel of wits between Arnold
and the weekly. The pamphlet shows
Arnold's interest in the state of Europe
after Napoleon Ill's fiasco of a war to
liberate Italy from Austrian rule, his
understanding of French motives, his
hope that under Palmerston Eng-
land's programme for Italy would be
Italy for the Italians, and the removal
of all foreign interference between the
Italians and their governments'. Above
all, however, was his anxiety about
the moral position of England herself,
and his desire that the aristocracy,
whose virtues and faults he analysed
for the first time, should 'command
the respect and even the enthusiasm
of their countrymen'. [Reviewed MLN
528.]

Matthew Arnold was the true son
of his father; Dr. Arnold's influence
is traced by Frances J. Woodward 49 in
the lives of four pupils: Dean Stanley,
Broad Churchman and defender of Es-
says and Reviews and Bishop Colenso;
John Philip Gell, who founded a col-
lege in Tasmania on some of Arnold's
ideas; A. H. Clough, the impression-
able poet who passed into 'a vortex of
philosophy and discussion' at Oxford
which cost him his faith and gave his
poetry its peculiar cast; William Dela-
field Arnold, the Doctor's fourth son,
who helped to codify the rules of
Rugby Football in 1845, and applied

48 Matthew Arnold's England and the
Italian Question, with an Introduction and
Notes by Merle M. Bevington. Duke U.P.
and C.U.P. pp. xxviii+74. 2ls.

49 The Doctor's Disciples: A Study of
Four Pupils of Arnold of Rugby, by
Frances J. Woodward. O.U.P. pp. 239.
2ls.

his father's ideals about education in
the Punjab.

Charles Augustus Howell was a man
of mystery; Rossetti's niece, Mrs.
Angeli, 50 defends him against detrac-
tors in a book untidy in method but
valuable for its family intimacies and
Howell's letters, which 'are not lack-
ing in character or a certain charm'.
He still appears as a born liar, slip-
pery in business, inefficient, but well-
meaning. Everything he did became
complicated and devious, and Watts-
Dunton wrote justly of his 'sublime
quackery and supreme blarney'. [Re-
viewed TLS 344.]

There were 'quackery and blarney'
in Oscar Wilde's make-up, but he was
also one of the near-great writers of
his time. Lewis Broad's centenary bio-
graphy 51 considers him less as the
writer than as a tragic hero who 'splen-
didly contrived his own catastrophe'.
The style is over-emphatic but the sad
tale is clearly told, with feeling for fact
as well as for drama. Particularly
valuable are the portraits of Wilde's
friends; and the story of their rivalries
is continued till the death of Lord
Alfred Douglas.

Jeanie Adams-Acton (nee Hering)
was a minor writer, and her biogra-
pher 52 says little about her work, but
her life and memories touched many
spheres, political, literary, artistic (her
husband was a famous sculptor). The
book gives a charming picture of cul-
tured Victorian family life. [Reviewed
TLS (1955), 131.]

Two books throw light on the theatre
at home and overseas. Letters in the
Turnbull Library, Wellington, N.Z.,

50 Pre-Raphaelite Twilight: The Story of
Charles Augustus Howell, by Helen Rossetti
Angeli. Richards Press, pp. xiii+256. 2ls.

51 The Friendships and Follies of Oscar
Wilde, by Lewis Broad. Hutchinson. pp.
264. 155.

52 Victorian Sidelights, from the Papers
of the late Mrs. Adams-Acton, by A. M. W.
Stirling. Benn. pp. 288. 21,s.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

195

describing a theatrical tour of Austra-
lia by Charles Kean and his wife Ellen
Tree in 1863-4 have been edited by
J. M. D. Hardwick, 53 with a useful
biography. If Kean lacked his father
Edmund's genius, he was a competent
actor, and produced Shakespeare with
remarkable attention to historical ac-
curacy. The letters portray vividly the
ageing pair's struggle in Australia, and
then in America on the way home,
against ill health, bad conditions, crude
audiences, and trouble in their com-
pany. The illustrations are excellent.
[Reviewed TLS 832.]

The life of one of America's first
great actresses, Anna Cora Mowatt,
links both sides of the Atlantic, for she
was a great success in London, after
stooping from the 'Knickerbocracy'
to give readings, write novels and a
play (Fashion), then to perform in The
Lady of Lyons. She wrote an auto-
biography, but Eric Barnes 54 tells the
story better, with much additional in-
formation, to compose an important
piece of stage history. [Reviewed TLS
796.]

4. Other Significant Biographies

Four important works relate to the
political and historical background.
The second Lord Liverpool was a
mediocrity, yet he was a successful
Prime Minister for fifteen years at a
crucial period (1812-26). The story of
his time by Sir Charles Petrie 55 makes
a framework of Wordsworth's politi-
cal poetry, Shelley's Mask of Anarchy,
and Hazlitt's Spirit of the Age. [Re-
viewed TLS 851.]

53 Emigrant in Motley: The Unpublished
Letters of Charles and Ellen Kean, ed. by
J. M. D. Hardwick. Rockliff. pp. xx+260.
21s.

54 Anna Cora: The Life and Theatre of
Anna Cora Mowatt, by Eric Barnes. Seeker
& Warburg, pp. 376. 25s.

55 Lord Liverpool and his Times, by Sir
Charles Petrie, Bt. Barrie. pp. lx+286. 25^.

Lord Melbourne's fascinating
character, his paradoxical utterances
springing from a realistic and cynical
appraisal of mankind, make the second
volume of Lord David Cecil's study 56
as interesting for literary students as
his first, though the second Caroline
(Mrs. Norton) is not so vivid a figure
as Lady Caroline Lamb. Melbourne's
later career (1827-48) covers the early
prime of Disraeli, Tennyson, and Car-
lyle. He might have been a great
aphorist had he troubled 6 to acquire
that sustained art ... needed to turn
good conversation into good litera-
ture'. As it is, we are given some
memorable obiter dicta. There are
piquant portraits of his contempora-
ries. [Reviewed TLS 640.]

To read Sir Philip Magnus's life of
Gladstone 57 after Morley's is like being
present at a resurrection. Here we see
not only the whole sweep of the Vic-
torian age, its religious, political, and
social conflicts, its material progress,
but also the daily activities and vicis-
situdes of a politic yet high-principled
leader. Gladstone wrote verses, and
was friendly with Wordsworth and
Tennyson, on whose death he refused
to admit Swinburne's claims to the
Laureateship: 'Wordsworth and Ten-
nyson have made the place great.
They have also made it extremely
clean.' This book is essential for all
students of the century. [Reviewed
TLS 617.]

Equally impressive is the portrait of
Florence Nightingale drawn by Cecil
Woodham-Smith 58 which was again
reprinted in 1954. Material from
family papers adds much to what was
previously known about her religious

56 Lord M. or The Later Life of Lord
Melbourne, by David Cecil. Constable,
pp. xiii+348. 21s.

57 Gladstone: A Biography, by Philip
Magnus. Murray, pp. xiv+482. 28s.

58 Florence Nightingale, 1820-1910, by
Cecil Woodham-Smith. Constable, pp.
vii+615. 21s.

196

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

vocation, long and desperate self-
training, relations with women friends
and men such as Sidney Herbert and
Arthur dough, and her later life.

5. Background Books

Asa Briggs 59 has investigated the so-
cial history of 1851-67 as revealed in
the work of significant figures, e.g.
Roebuck and the Crimean War; Trol-
lope, Bagehot, and the English Con-
stitution; Samuel Smiles and the Gos-
pel of Work; Thomas Hughes and the
Public Schools. He gives lucid accounts
of the diverse political attitudes of
John Bright, Robert Lowe, and Dis-
raeli. [Reviewed TLS 818.]

James Laver, 60 on the other hand,
throws light on Victorian manners by
collecting short extracts which he
arranges, with running commentary,
under suitable heads, e.g. The Family
Circle', 'Holidays at Home', The Sol-
diers of the Queen', 'Religion and
Science' sixteen chapters in all. 'In
this method it is the trifles that count'
(he declares) 'an extract from a Letter-
Writer or a book of etiquette, a menu
of 1850, a music-hall song, a valen-
tine.' The result is much more than a
scrapbook. [Reviewed TLS 757.]

Late Victorian and Edwardian
family life is reconstructed in W.
Macqueen-Pope's reminiscences* 1 of
his own people, their personalities and
behaviour in the home and outside it,
their gaiety, sense of duty, respecta-
bility. We learn what it was like to
live in a Victorian house, to go to day-
school. This book is a rich store of
information about a civilization and
a code now vanished. It is the world

59 Victorian People: Some Reassessments
of People, Institutions, Ideas, and Events
(185 1-67), by Asa Briggs. Odhams. pp.317.

185.

60 Victorian Vista, by James Laver.
Hulton Press, pp. 256. 25s.

61 Back Numbers, by W. Macqueen-Pope.
With 84 Illustrations. Hutchinson. pp. 352.
21s.

of Gissing, Kipling, the early Wells,
seen humorously and nostalgically.

Henry James's flimsy essay on
Daumier, 62 reprinted from the Cen-
tury Magazine of January 1 890, com-
pares English and French caricature.
The very essence of the art of Cruick-
shank and Gavarni, of Daumier and
Leech, is to be historical', he writes,
but 'the pages of Punch do not reek
with pessimism, and Leech is almost
positively optimistic', whereas Dau-
mier sees human weaknesses as 'hugely
ugly and grotesque'.

The Faust theme was so popular in
nineteenth-century England that men-
tion may fitly be made of Barker Fair-
ley's six essays on Goethe's work 63
which contain pertinent remarks about
the effects on drama of a lyrical in-
spiration. Fairley finds 'in its quality
of sophisticated retrospection, whether
in the form of parody, leitmotif, or
literary allusion, that Faust comes
nearest to the poetic writing of today'.
In conception and practice it stands
midway between the dramatic tradi-
tion proper, and Ulysses and The
Waste Land. But it is much more opti-
mistic than these latter works. [Re-
viewed MLR 387.]

(V) Periodicals

By P. M. YARKER

1. Poets

WORDSWORTH'S eyes were very weak,
but those who met him were struck by
the strange light that seemed to dwell
in them; a light, according to De
Quincey, 'which seems to come from
some unf athomed depths . . . radiating
from some far spiritual world'. In
Wordsworth et les Images Eidetiques

62 Daumier, Caricaturist, by Henry James.
Rodale Press, pp. 36. 5$.

63 Goethe's Faust: Six Essays, by Barker
Fairley. O.U.P.(1953). pp.vii+132.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

197

(Revue des Langues Vivants, Brussels)
Roger Asselineau suggests that he was
subject to that strange condition in
which the impressions of the senses
are indistinguishable from hallucina-
tion. He was thus led, according to
this theory, to an instinctive idealism,
so that even in boyhood what he saw
appeared (as he put it) 'A prospect in
my mind 1 , and took on The glory and
the freshness of a dream'. Conversely,
the images in 'that inward eye' were to
him, perhaps, equally intense as those
in the outward one.

His poem Address to Silence, in The
Weekly Entertainer for 6 March 1 797,
has already been the subject of in-
quiry, and in An Early Poem and
Letter by Wordsworth (RES), L R.
MacGillivray draws attention to two
more of Wordsworth's contributions
to the Dorset paper. On 7 November
1796 was published Address to the
' Ocean, signed 'W. W.' of which draft
passages are to be found in a notebook
at Dove Cottage. The poem begins
with an acknowledged quotation from
Coleridge's Ossianic poem Ninathoma,
but is itself in a realistic style which
contrasts with the 'Celtic Twilight' of
Ossian. The writer suggests that this
contrast supplies an early illustration
of the opposing tendencies of the two
poets. The Letter, dated 13 October
1796, concerns Wordsworth's connex-
ion with the family of Fletcher Chris-
tian, the mutineer.

Two articles draw attention to the
need to approach Wordsworth from
the direction of his immediate pre-
decessors. In Wordsworth and John
Langhorne's 'The Country Justice'
(NQ), Roger Sharrock points out
Wordsworth's sympathy with certain
minor poets of the eighteenth century
'often on the strength of their north-
country origin or associations'. Lang-
horne was a poet of Westmorland, and
also held a living at Blagdon in Somer-
set His poem The Country Justice

(1774-7) was praised by Wordsworth,
who thought it possibly 'the first poem
. . . that fairly brought the muse into
common life'. An echo from it in An
Evening Walk has already been noted
by de Selincourt, and a close parallel
is now found with Guilt and Sorrow,
although whereas Langhorne looks
on social abuses with the practical eye
of a humane magistrate, Wordsworth's
indictment gains a doctrinaire passion
from his adherence to Godwin's
theories'. The second article comes
from Robert Mayo, who stresses The
Contemporaneity of the 'Lyrical Bal-
lads' (PMLA). The closing years of
the eighteenth century were a period
of 'poetic inflation*, when the five
leading magazines published some 500
poems a year. Most of these were in-
deed marked by 'gaudiness and inane
phraseology' as Wordsworth claimed,
but there were others of a different
quality, concerned with new subjects
and written in a new style. Although
'responsible Wordsworthians tend to
view Wordsworth and Coleridge as
reacting with a kind of totality against
contemporary fashions', the poems of
the first edition of Lyrical Ballads,
with the exception of The Ancient
Mariner, compare closely with this
minority of magazine poems in both
form and content. Numerous ex-
amples show that many of Words-
worth's figures were already familiar
as members of e the long procession of
mendicants who infested the poetry
departments of the popular miscel-
lanies', so that it is not surprising that
certain contemporary critics found the
poems 'supremely normal'.

That "uncertain heaven received
Into the bosom of the steady lake" I
should have recognized anywhere:'
wrote Coleridge, 'and had I met these
lines running wild in the deserts of
Arabia, I should instantly have
screamed out "Wordsworth".' The
unmistakable feature was, of course,

198

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

the opposition of 'uncertain heaven'
and 'steady lake', and in The Con-
trarieties: Wordsworth's Dualistic
Imagery (PMLA) Charles J. Smith
suggests that the hundreds of examples
throughout his poetry of such images
depending on pairs of opposing ideas
give evidence of a very strong habit of
Wordsworth's thinking, and so pro-
vide a clue to his intention in many
poems.

The connexion between imagina-
tion and the natural world is the sub-
ject of several studies of Wordsworth's
later poetry. The Themes of Immor-
tality and Natural Piety in Words-
norths 'Immortality Ode', by Thomas
M. Raysor (PMLA), after resisting
Bradley's definition of Wordsworth's
sense of immortality as 'a conscious-
ness that he is potentially infinite' in
favour of a view that the soul is not
itself infinite but is 'a partaker of the
infinity from which it comes', goes on
to deal with the poet's return to natu-
ral piety at the end of the Ode. This
does not provide a parallel to the re-
turn to nature in Tintern Abbey, for
there is now no disparagement of 'the
coarser pleasures of my boyish days'
but a reassertion of the early love of
nature, lacking the glory and the gleam
to be sure, but acquiring in their place
rich human associations for every
natural object'. These 'rich human
associations' were perhaps the key to
Wordsworth's later symbolic poetry,
in which 'objects derive their influ-
ence . . . from such (properties) as are
bestowed on them by the minds of
those who are conversant with or
affected by those objects'. Stewart C.
Wilcox, who quotes this statement by
Wordsworth about The White Doe,
traces the relation of the course of the
river in Wordsworth's 'River Duddon
Sonnets' (PMLA) to 'man's spirit as it
emerges from the unknown, runs its
earthly course and merges again with
the eternal'. The symbolic aspect of

the Doe herself has been so stressed
that her 'natural properties the Doe
as mere doe have generally been
neglected', says Martin Price in Ima-
gination in the 'White Doe of Ryl-
stone' (PQ). Yet Wordsworth insisted
that the poem is about imagination,
and 'it is typically in the natural ex-
perience that the mind finds occasion
for its imaginative exertion'. Conse-
quently, although in the first canto
the Doe is very mysterious, the fact
that the qualities that made her so are
given a natural explanation in the en-
suing narrative endows her with far
greater wonder than the 'fancies wild'
which she first excited.

Some adjustments to the Coleridge
canon are suggested by Earl L. Griggs
in Notes concerning certain Poems of
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (MLN). An
examination of the files of the Morn-
ing Chronicle reveals that To Fortune
must yield place as his first published
work to Irregular Sonnet, a juvenile
poem published in the paper, with the
signature 'C', on 15 July 1793. Two
sonnets previously attributed to Coler-
idge are probably not his: The Faded
Flower was probably by Southey, and
the evidence by which To Lord Stan-
hope was credited to Coleridge is very
doubtful. A manuscript letter from
Coleridge to George Dyer is also pub-
lished by Griggs (date and present
location not given) which suggests
that three epigrams appearing in The
Monthly Magazine for April and June
1804 were Coleridge's. Another Cole-
ridge-Southey confusion is noted by
Cecil C. Seronsy in Marginalia by
Coleridge in Three Copies of his pub-
lished Works (S in Ph). The first of
these is the Harvard copy of Con-
dones ad Populum, in which Coleridge
has cancelled certain paragraphs refer-
ring to men of Jacobin sympathies,
including the poem To the Exiled
Patriots. At the end of the deleted
portion he has noted 'Written by

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

199

Southey. I never saw these men. S. T.
Coleridge.' The other volumes are the
Harvard copies of The Friend and
Aids to Reflection, both of which
were presentation copies from the
author, and both generously annotated
by him. In most cases the notes were
for enlargements of the text in subse-
quent editions, and they present typi-
cal examples of 'the way he could
frequently illuminate an abstract idea
and give it embodiment'. A close ex-
amination of his letters between his
return from Germany in 1799 and the
middle of 1803 enables Charlotte
Woods Glickfield to identify some of
Coleridge's Prose Contributions to
'The Morning Post' (PMLA).

The remaining articles on Coleridge
deal with his criticism, but it will be
more convenient to consider them
here than later. Howard H. Creed ex-
amines Coleridge's Metacriticism (a
term supplied by Muirhead) in three
stages (PMLA). Part 1 deals with
Coleridge in relation to the history of
criticism which 'could be written in
terms of the oscillation from one to
the other of the critical poles of Plato
and Aristotle'. Coleridge attempted to
reconcile the two by showing that 'it
is the nature of poetry to be an Aris-
totelian imitation; it is the function of
poetry to teach a Platonic truth'. But
although he thus incorporated Aris-
totle's definition of 'imitation' in his
idea of organic unity, he required 'a
sanction for (the term) that goes be-
yond the mere empirical definition that
was Aristotle's sanction'. He found
this in his conception of the creative
process, and the second part of the
article deals with his psychological
theories and his view of the imagina-
tion. Illustrations of this from the
Shakespearian analyses form the third
part, and the article concludes with a
consideration of whether his meta-
physical approach leads him all too
often to a discussion of principles

rather than poems', a charge of which
the writer of the article would acquit
him. Reference to Coleridge in the
title draws Symbol and Implication:
Notes apropos a Dictum of Coleridge's
by John Peter (Ess Crif) into the pre-
sent section, although it is really con-
cerned to distinguish between true and
false uses of the terms in current refer-
ence by way of a number of examples
drawn chiefly from Wordsworth, Ten-
nyson, and modern novels. The dictum
is from On Poesy or Art: c to make the
external internal, the internal external'.
Commenting on The Text of 'Biogra-
phia Literaria' (NQ), George Watson
points out that although Coleridge
himself said that the first edition of
1817 had been 'wildly printed' and
was in need of emendation, the altera-
tions and suppressions made by H. N.
and Sara Coleridge in the edition of
1 847 were so extensive as to make the
first edition still the more acceptable
text.

Southey owned two manuscripts of
Celia Fiennes's accounts of her jour-
neys, and made use of them as the
source of his descriptions of seven-
teenth-century England in a number
of articles which first appeared in the
Athenaeum between January 1807
and June 1809, as well as in Letters
from England: by Don Manuel Al-
varez. Translated from the Spanish.
This is noted by Nat Lewis Kaderly
in Southey' s Borrowings from Celia
Fiennes (MLN).

The excellence of the Dialogue in
Byron'sDramash&s been insufficiently
recognized, says Arthur M. Z. Norrnan
(NQ), but it 'is of such fine mettle as
to place him among the foremost of
verse dramatists in this particular
ability'. Examples illustrate its buoy-
ancy and dramatic quality, and con-
trast with the 'monotone' of H. H.
Milman's Fazio, a stage success of the
time. In Byron as Parodist (MLN)
C. V. Wicker notes a number of his

200

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

occasional pieces that are also paro-
dies. A letter from G. Wilson Knight
draws attention to the 'Don Leon'
Poems (1X5), which, purporting to be
by Byron, first appeared in 1866. They
are not, as they stand, by Byron, 'but
the knowledge of his life and person-
ality shown in them demand respect'.
Knight suggests George Colman as
the author.

Some light on Shelley's activities in
the winter of 1812-13 is thrown by
H. M. Dowling in Shelley's Enemy at
Tremadoc (NQ). The 'enemy', men-
tioned but not named in the biogra-
phies, is identified as the Hon. Robert
Leeson, and the cause of the quarrel
as Shelley's intervention in a scheme
for repairing the sea wall, in which
Leeson had formerly taken the leading
part. Further articles by the same wri-
ter (also NQ), The Alleged Attempt
to assassinate Percy Bysshe Shelley
and New Letters about Shelley, ex-
plore the subject further. The new
letters are in the Ynstowyn collection
of the papers of W. A. Madocks, who
was Leeson's landlord.

The question of the relation of the
imagination to experience, already
mentioned in connexion with Words-
worth, is the subject of 'Alas tor', or
the Spirit of Solipsism, by Albert
Gerard (PQ). The need to replace a
rational or mechanistic view by an
imaginative one was central to the
Romantic movement, but whereas
most English poets managed to retain
sufficient empiricism to 'see heaven in
a wild flower', Shelley felt the attrac-
tion of idealism much more strongly.
Nevertheless, 'we should look twice
before wholly identifying Shelley with
his Poet', for he was sufficiently Eng-
lish to resist the temptation to aban-
don himself to idealism completely,
although his Poet did not resist it The
poem is thus 'an allegory in which
Shelley tried to weigh up the conflict-
ing claims of dream and reality' by an

ambivalent attitude to natural beauty.
So although Shelley himself depicts
this beauty magnificently, his Poet re-
mains oblivious of it, preferring to fall
in love with the ideal arising in his own
mind. Finally, Shelley neither con-
demns nor condones his hero, but, by
showing that the Poet allowed himself
to be awakened to 'too exquisite a per-
ception' of the Supreme Power, and so
cut himself off from the proper nourish-
ment of the human soul, he makes an
implicit repudiation of idealism.

A number of notes and articles sug-
gest Shelley's source material, either
for whole poems, or for a single line
or image. The first edition version of
Coleridge's Lines on an Autumn
Evening quotes as a footnote four
lines from Michael Bruce's poem
Lochleven. Finding certain images
reminiscent of these lines in the Ode
to the West Wind, Charles S. Bouslog,
in Coleridge, Bruce and the "Ode to
the West Wind' (NQ), suggests that
Shelley may have approached Bruce's
poem by way of Coleridge's note.
Another Source of 'The Revolt of
Islam' is suggested by Ben W, Griffith
(NQ) in La Araucana by Alonso de
Ercilla y Zufliga, which is mentioned
in a note on Shelley's manuscript in
his hand. Some notes on the composi-
tion of Shelley's 'Ginevra' are contri-
buted by Neville Rogers (TLS). The
story of Ginevra degli Amieri may be
found in Boccaccio, and also in the
L'Osservatore Fiorentino of Lastri,
which Shelley read in April 1821. The
two stories offer a choice of endings,
for whereas in Boccaccio she is restored
to her husband, in Lastri her marriage
is invalidated by her 'death', and she
is permitted to remain with her lover.
Shelley, however, left the poem un-
finished because, suggests the writer,
of its closeness to the actual case of
Emilia Viviani, at that time awaiting
in a convent the husband of her
parents* choice. Shelley was turning

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

201

to abstract conceptions, away from
the mood of Epipsychidion, when the
news of Keats's death hastened the
process. The article ends by noting
that Leigh Hunt, untroubled by ab-
stract problems, took up the story
with great popular success in his play
A Legend of Florence (1840). Earl R.
Wasserman shows that the image of
the sword consumed by lightning be-
fore the sheath, in Shelley's 'Adonais'
177-179 (MLN*) was derived from a
traditional belief mentioned by Seneca
and the elder Pliny, and still surviving
in the nineteenth century.

Resistance to the claims of Robert
Gittings in John Keats, The Living
Year is offered by Miriam Allott in
'The Feast and the Lady": a Recurrent
Pattern in Keats's Poetry (NQ). Git-
tings suggested that the sequence of a
sumptuous banquet with music, and
subsequently 'some sort of shock or
revelation concerning a woman' re-
curs in the poetry only after Keats's
supposed experience with Isabella
Jones. Allott suggests that the pattern,
as described by Gittings, is incom-
plete, and that 'the state of sleep, or
trance or enchantment' is a necessary
item of the complete sequence, and
that, moreover, this can be found
several times in Endymion, written
long before the Isabella Jones epi-
sode. Replying (NQ) Gittings states
his reasons for rejecting the element
of sleep, and for denying the existence
of the significant pattern in Endy-
mion. It is insufficient, he claims,
merely for the idea of sleep to be pre-
sent; it would be necessary for the
principal character to sleep, and this
happens in only two of the recurrent
instances, and in others, such as that
in St. Agnes Eve, the chief character
necessarily remains awake. He rejected
the passages from Endymion, he says,
because of the absence of horror in
the 'shock or revelation' which ends
the sequence.

On the analogy of the threefold
composition that he found in Con-
stable's The Hay Wain, D. S. Bland
discovers that the 'Logical Structure'
in the 'Ode to Autumn' (PQ) exists on
at least four levels. C. W. Gillam notes
a number of parallels between Keats,
Mary Tighe and others (NQ) which
have hitherto escaped attention.

A letter from Alan Walbrook (TLS)
draws attention to parallels between
Emily Bronte's poem The Visionary
and The Eve of St. Agnes.

Tennyson, according to his son,
claimed that Ulysses 'gave my feelings
about the need for going forward and
braving the struggle of life perhaps
more simply than anything in In
Memoriam'. This statement, says E. J.
Chiasson in Tennyson's 'Ulysses' a
Re-interpretation (UTQ\ may mean
that the poem is one of 'the many ex-
pressions of Tennyson's conviction
that religious faith is mandatory for
the multitudinous needs of life'. Hal-
lam Tennyson's statement that the
'evolution' passages in In Memoriam
were not derived from Chambers's
Vestiges of Creation has not been ac-
cepted as evidence that Tennyson was
not influenced by the book. In Tenny-
son's 'Princess" and 'Vestiges' (PMLA)
Milton Millhauser, noting that Tenny-
son read the book early in 1845, ex-
amines its possible effects on The
Princess, on which he was at that time
engaged. There are several parallels,
but they suggest 'merely that he recog-
nizes Chambers's thesis as topical and
challenging, not that he actually ac-
cepts it'. This may have been a pattern
of the relation of the book to other
poems, in which case the 'evolution'
passages in In Memoriam are a com-
mentary on, and indeed an answer to
it, rather than a derivation from it.

A note by 'V. R.' on Virgil and
Tennyson (NQ) suggests 'prensan-
temque uncis manibus capita aspera
montis' from Aeneid vi as the original

202

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

of 'He clasps the crag with crooked
hands'.

When Lucretius was first published
in Macmillan 1 s Magazine for May
1 868, the passage describing the Oread
was omitted, and the general supposi-
tion has been that this was in deference
to public opinion. In a note on Tenny-
son's 'Lucretius' Bowdlerized (RES),
however, William E. Buckler prints
a letter dated 27 March 1868 from
David Masson, then editor of the
magazine, to its publisher, in which
he raised objections to the passage on
aesthetic grounds. He thought 'budded
bosom-peaks' 'too hackneyed and too
physically harsh an indelicacy to come
from Tennyson'.

The poem has more to tell us of
Browning himself than any other in-
dividual work, says Charles Du Bos
in 'Pauline' de Browning (tud ang).
The lines beginning 'I cannot chain
my soul' throw light on what was
always to be the inner depth of the
poet; 'being bound to trust/ all feelings
equally, to hear all sides'. Earl Hilton
in Browning's 'Sordello' as a Study of
the Will (PMLA) reminds us that the
Victorian Age 'was less concerned than
ours with private neuroses', and he
interprets the poem in the light of the
mid-century belief in action, and as a
warning of the social ills that follow
tragic indecision. Sordello, preferring
dreams to action, had no 'single path'
to follow, and so wasted the energies
that might have unified Italy. After
winning the song-contest he was per-
plexed and dispirited to discover that
he could not always match his aspira-
tions with achievement, and fell vic-
tim to an 'inner strife' from which he
sought retreat. He found a new ideal
in the service of the people, but, after
initial success, he was deflected from
his purpose to free his country by
temptations of personal advancement
Here ensued a conflict between his
love of country and his love of self,

and, although he finally chose aright,
and rejected the proffered honours, he
did so at the cost of his life. But al-
though he achieved personal salva-
tion, we are not allowed to forget 'that
the work that Sordello might have
done remains undone'. The theme is
illustrated in different ways by the
other persons of the poem who (in
Carlylean phrase) 'found their work'.
Sordello did not, and 'Italy and the
world suffer yet' in consequence. A
footnote draws attention to evidence
that Browning identified himself with
Sordello.

'Browning's skill in combining into
a consistent and unified whole mate-
rials from widely different sources is
splendidly exemplified by his brief
poem Ben Karshook's Wisdom\ says
Curtis Dahl in A Note on Browning's
'Ben Karshook's Wisdom' (MLN), in
which he suggests that the second sec-
tion of the poem, which has no paral-
lel in the Hebrew lore with which the
poem deals, was taken from an anec-
dote about Fuseli with which Brown-
ing was probably familiar.

Matthew Arnold once described
water as the 'mediator between the in-
animate and man', and the use of the
sea symbol in his poetry is further
considered by Wendell Stacy Johnson
in Arnold's Lonely Islands (NQ. See
YW xxxiii). William E, Buckler draws
attention to An American Edition of
Matthew Arnold's Poems (PMLA)
which has hitherto passed unnoticed.
It was published by Macmillan & Co.
of New York in 1878, and letters from
Arnold to the publisher, here printed
for the first time, and now in the pos-
session of Macmillan & Co., London,
show that Arnold carefully revised
his work for it. The Church of Brou
was here first reinstated among his
'Early Poems', for example, and vari-
ous emendations were made with in-
structions that they were to be retained
in subsequent editions.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

203

Some notable New Verses by Ar-
thur Hugh Clough are published by
Geoffrey Tillotson (TLS). They are
taken from a contribution by Clough
to volume iv of The Classical Museum,
a journal of Philology and of Ancient
History and Literature, which was
published between 1843 and 1850.
Clough's article is called Illustrations
of Latin Lyrical Metres. Interesting
for the light it throws on Clough's
attitude to the naturalization of clas-
sical metres in English verse, its chief
value is in the 400 lines or so of trans-
lation it embodies, and Tillotson has
been concerned solely to 'rescue the
best of these lost poems of Clough'.
He chooses three translations from
Horace's Odes, and three short pas-
sages of what Clough called 'quasi-
nonsense' non-translated verse de-
signed to illustrate certain metrical
characteristics.

William Morris's early Arthurian
poems 'have been described as emo-
tionally effective but formless tapes-
tries of chance reminiscence from
Morris's reading of Malory', says
Curtis Dahl in Morris's 'Chapel in
Lyonesse'; An Interpretation (S in Ph).
There is in this poem, however, a re-
cognizable structure discernible in the
symbolism and allusion drawn not
only from accounts of the unsuccess-
ful knight, Sir Orzana le Cure Hardy,
with whom the poem is chiefly con-
cerned, but also from those of Sir
Galahad and Sir Perceval and the
Graal Legend. The effect of these is
to reveal the long trance of Sir Orzana
as 'a necessary penance, a waste land
through which he has to pass to reach
the springs of salvation'. In this way
the poem may be seen to have *a dra-
matic and intellectual consistency
(which) seems too great to be merely
accidental'; and in this it is typical of
the whole group.

Ruth Marie Faurot indicates in a
note headed Swinburne's Poem 'Love'

a Translation from Victor Hugo (NQ)
that the poem in question, published
posthumously in Two Knights (1918)
was a translation of the song in Hugo's
Ruy Bias.

This section may conveniently close
with a reference to Communication
and the Victorian Poet (Ess Crif) in
which Kingsley Amis suggests a rela-
tion between the degree of permanent
appeal in a poet's work, and his de-
pendence on an audience among a
circle of his own contemporaries. 'Ex-
cept in the short run only those who
write for an audience will reach one',
he says. A number of poets are con-
sidered from this point of view. Ros-
setti was most indefatigable in trying
out his verses on his friends, and so
achieved precision. Hopkins depended
on Bridges, but knew that an audience
was necessary to increase his power of
communication. Thomson wrote for
himself alone, thus ensuring, among
other things, 'ineptitude of expression';
Meredith also despised consultation,
and so remains obscure. Morris and
Swinburne both insisted on an audi-
ence, but accepted no criticism, hence
the lack of finish of one and the pro-
lixity of the other. The only poet who
defies category in this scheme is Chris-
tina Rossetti, who consulted no one,
but retains an undisputed reputation.

2. Novelists

C. S. Lewis in A Note on Jane
Austen (Ess Crif) shows by quotation
that awakening from self -deception is
an important element common to the
heroines of Northanger Abbey, Sense
and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice,
and Emma. Mansfield Park and Per-
suasion are exceptional not only be-
cause they do not share this pattern,
but also because they are the novels
of the solitary heroines, who 'stand
almost outside, certainly a little apart
from, the world which the action

204

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

depicts' and in which self-deception
occurs, so that they are witnesses to it
instead of victims of it.

An article by John Sparrow on Jane
Austen and Sydney Smith (TLS)
attempted to identify the Reverend
Henry Tilney in Nort hanger Abbey
with Smith, whom Jane is conjectured
to have met at Bath during her visit in
1797. A correspondence ensued during
which enthusiasm took the place of
scholarship until a touch of irony by
J. D. K. Lloyd restrained it. Cecil Price
consulted the lists of visitors to Bath
in November and December 1797,
and discovered Sydney Smith's name
among them, together with an extra-
ordinary number of the surnames
used by Jane in the novels but not
her own. In contrast to all this conjec-
ture, a letter from Kathleen Tillotson
on Jane Austen (TLS) brings to light
some indisputable biographical mate-
rial of great interest, in the form of a
vivid portrait of Jane by Fulwar Wil-
liam Fowle, who was the 'William' of
her letters, and had known her from
childhood. Fowle's account is given in
a letter from Harriet Mozley (New-
man's sister), dated 2 November 1838,
and now in the possession of Mr. J. H.
Mozley, in which she describes a visit
paid to Fowle the day before.

Frank W. Bradbrook suggests in
Jane Austen and Choderlos de Laclos
(NQ) that Les Liaisons Dangereuses
may have influenced the character of
Mary Crawford, who 'has the same
polish, cynicism and ruthlessness as
la Marquise de Merteuil in Laclos's
novel, while Henry Crawford posses-
ses a similar combination of intelli-
gence and heartlessness to Valmont'.
Joseph M. Duffy, analysing Structure
and Idea in Jane Austen's 'Persuasion'
(NCF), sees them as three concentric
circles, representing time, social
change, and 'personal force, the inner
smallest circle ... in which Anne de-
velops with immaculate splendour',

and which concentrates the effects of
the other two.

Some new Scott material comes to
light. In An Uncollected Preface by
Sir Walter Scott (NQ) William Ruff
gives his reasons for attributing to
Scott the preface to the 1802 edition
of Robert Dodsley's The Economy of
Human Life', and Norton Downs
prints Two Unpublished Letters of Sir
Walter Scott (MLN) in his possession,
one dated 25 April 1802, and the other
marked only 'Sunday evening', appa-
rently 25 July 1813. The former, to
Codell and Davies, the publishers,
concerns the copyright of Minstrelsy
of the Scottish Border, and the latter,
to Ramsay the printer, conveys cer-
tain instructions for the production of
his edition of Swift.

R. H. Bowers prints Some Marry at
Letters (NQ), three in number, now in
the Pierpont Morgan Library in New
York. Kenneth W. Scott, writing
about Monsieur Violet (TLS), points
out that Marryat's book was not based
solely, as his biographers have claimed,
on the travels of a young Frenchman
called Laselle, but was largely pla-
giarized, in exact transcription, from
several American tales and travel
books, the details of which are given.

Philip Henderson draws attention,
in a letter on Charlotte Bronte and
Hathersage (TLS), to a number of
parallels tending to confirm the tra-
ditional connexion between North
Lees Hall Farm, Hathersage, Derby-
shire, and Mr. Rochester's house,
Thornfield Hall.

Arnold P. Drew, in Emily Bronte
and 'Hamlet' (NQ), finds a correspon-
dence between the mad scenes of
Ophelia and Cathy Earnshaw, with
feathers substituted for flowers.

The actual model for Mr. Rigby in
Coningsby is known to be John Wil-
son Croker. In The Literary Original
of Disraeli's 'Mr. Rigby (NQ) A.
Griffiths points out that there is also

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

205

a Mr. Rigby in T. H. Lister's fashion-
able novel Granby, who occupies
much the same position as his name-
sake. Granby was published in 1826,
at the same time and by the same
house as Vivian Grey. All writers are
surely pleased to receive letters of
appreciation, even from total stran-
gers, but perhaps not many preserve
them. Disraeli, however, was an ex-
ception, and some sixty such letters
may be found, among other papers, at
Hughenden Manor. In Disraeli's Fan
Mail: A Curiosity Item (NCF), Ber-
nard R. Jerman quotes some of them
from well-known persons in various
walks of life, and suggests that their
importance lies in the effect that the
knowledge of a large and appreciative
public must have had on him par-
ticularly as one of the letters was
'from a Working man who never was
at a School'.

In The Undisciplined Heart of David
Copperfield (NCF) Gwendolen B.
Needham suggests that the Strong
episode, in which we hear of 'the first
mistaken impulses of an undisciplined
heart' illustrates the theme of the
whole novel, 'and that for maximum
effect Dickens planned the episode's
development to coincide at the right
moment with the emotional develop-
ment of his hero'. The Poor Labyrinth,
by John H. Hagan (NCF)), examines
Great Expectations as a statement of
'injustice working upon and through
the elders of Pip and Estella, and con-
tinuing its reign in the children them-
selves' so that Pip 'must atone for the
evils of the society that has corrupted
him'.

K. J. Fielding seeks to correct a bio-
graphical misconception, and to check
'the growth of a new Dickens "legend"
which is as false as the old uncritical
adoration' in Charles Dickens and
'The Ruffian" (English). Recent writers
have made use of the essay on The
Ruffian' in The Uncommercial Tra-

veller, with its insistence on harsh
measures for the suppression of crime
in the London streets, as evidence of
a mood of bitterness that overtook
Dickens in his last years. Fielding
shows that the incident described in
the essay must have taken place some
thirty years before, when Dickens was
a man of 33, and scarcely liable to the
'sex fears and frustrations' of which
one writer has seen it as evidence.
More biographical material concerns
Dickens and the Royal Literary Fund
on which an article appears from A
Correspondent (TLS). It contains a
close account of the leading part
played by Dickens in the attempt of
1855 to wrest control of the Literary
Fund from those who patronized
Literature, and vest it in those who
lived by it. Two speeches by Dickens
are reported, of which the first, al-
though it 'has never been reprinted or
even noticed by any of his biogra-
phers, represents almost his only suc-
cess as a controversialist'. The success
was only tactical, however, and the
move, in which C. W. Dilke, John
Forster, Bulwer Lytton, and others
played important parts, was finally
defeated. Further information on the
subject comes in Carlyle, Charles
Dickens and William Maccall (NQ\
in which K. J. Fielding explains why
Carlyle did not associate himself with
the attempt. He was interested in Wil-
liam Maccall at the time, and had
written to Dickens to ask how he
should set about obtaining a grant for
him from the Fund. Later he ap-
proached the secretary of the Fund
direct, and the Committee immediately
made a grant, using the occasion to
ensure that Carlyle did not join the
rebels.

Accounts of the bad feeling between
Dickens and Thackeray over the ex-
pulsion of Edmund Yates from the
Garrick Club in 1858 have been based
on Yates's own version of the affair in

206

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Recollections and Experiences (1884).
Yates harboured a lifelong grudge
against Thackeray, whose reputation
has accordingly suffered. In Dickens
versus Thackeray: The Garrick Club
Affair (PMLA), Gordon N. Ray seeks
to correct the bias by an account of
the incident 'based on all pertinent
contemporary data presently avail-
able'. The resulting account not only
clears Thackeray of all charges other
than 'excessive sensibility and fallible
judgment', but shows that the whole
incident was magnified by Dickens's
'fearful compulsion to maintain his
self-respect, whatever the cost to
others might be'.

Two aspects of Thackeray's Narra-
tive Technique are presented by John
A. Lester (PMLA). The first is his
Olympian attitude to time, by which
he viewed the pattern of his narrative
as a whole, moving back and forth in
it at will. This practice gave him many
technical advantages, enabling him to
begin easily in medias res, and also to
sustain the interest at a dramatic level
throughout invaluable for serial
publication. He had, however, other
motives for the practice, which are
described as psychological. He was
predisposed, for example, to interest
himself more in his characters' reac-
tions to events than in the events
themselves, and his timelessness en-
abled him to 'view his characters now
in the press of present action, now in
the mature and deliberate retrospect
of after life'. The other point concerns
his attitude to the dramatic presenta-
tion of his material. He had a reluc-
tance to present a direct scene, and
his normal method of narrative was
that of a personal account. Between
these two extremes, however, he 'in-
vents a full spectrum of semi-scenes,
each recording the spoken voice of
his characters, but each distinctly re-
moved from "actuality"'. Contem-
plating these two characteristics, the

writer concludes that 'it is the lasting
truth of human nature, rather than the
random truth of diverse individuals,
that lies closest to the heart of Thack-
eray's creation'.

Two items on Lewis Carroll come
from Roger Lancelyn Green. Ten-
niel's Models for 'Alice' (TLS) rejects
the view that Tenniel intended his
illustrations to refer to actual people,
although Lewis Carroll portrayed per-
sons known to the Liddell children.
The other item is a list of one hundred
of Lewis Carroll's Periodical Publica-
tions (NQ).

R. D. Blackmore departed from his
normal practice of avoiding conten-
tion in a passage from Cradock
Now ell quoted by William J. White
in Social Propaganda in R. D. Black-
more (NQ).

In a letter to Sara Hennell George
Eliot wrote 'Alas for the fate of poor
mortals which condemns them to wake
up some fine morning and find all the
poetry in which their world was bathed
only the evening before utterly gone ! '
Barbara Hardy shows that The Mo-
ment of Disenchantment in George
Eliot's novels (RES), represented by
the day-lit room, was one of the most
important of her recurring symbols.
The Interpretation of 'Adam Bede' in
Utilitarian terms is undertaken by
Albert J. Fyle (NCF). When she began
the novel in November 1857, George
Eliot had been discussing with Charles
Bray his The Philosophy of Necessity,
in which the Utilitarian doctrine of
consequences, which is central to
the novel, is stressed. 'Benevolence',
another of Bray's specialities, and
equated in this article with Comte's
'altruism', is also prominent. Another
study of symbolism, River Imagery
in "Daniel Deronda' by Jerome Thale
(NCF), shows that the river is the
symbol of George Eliot's warning
against 'drift', or moral degeneration.

One of the 'glimpses of Kossuth'

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

207

and the revolutionary fervour of 1 848,
which the biography of Meredith
gives us, is caught in An Early Mere-
dith Letter, now in the National
Museum of Budapest, and published
by B. G. Ivanyi (TLS). It is to F.
Pulszky, representative of the Hun-
garian revolutionaries in London, and
is dated 30 June 1849. Meredith's
'Autobiography' and the 'Adventures
of Harry Richmond' by R. B. Hudson
(NCF) reviews the evidence for be-
lieving that these two works are iden-
tical, and provides a summary of part
of The Adventures of Richmond Roy
and his friend Contrivance Jack: Be-
ing the History of Two Rising Men,
Meredith's first draft of the book,
now in the Frank Altschul Collection
at Yale.

In a note on The Author of Tom
Brown's Schooldays (NQ) an anony-
mous writer prints a letter in his pos-
session from Hughes, describing his
method and his motives for writing
the book.

The Confessional Fiction of Mark
Rutherford (UTQ) was not confined,
says Wilfred H. Stone, to the first two
novels. Not only his action in isolating
himself from the faith of his child-
hood, but also the emotional tension
caused by his first marriage compelled
Hale White to confess, 'and lacking a
psychiatrist or priest, he substituted
the public'.

G. Miallon examines La Critique
Stevensonienne du Centenaire (Stud
ang) in the light of the letters to Mrs.
Sitwell (Lady Colvin) made available
in the National Library of Scotland in
1949.

It has been suggested that Hardy's
pessimism on the one hand and his
'meliorism' on the other made it im-
possible for him to write tragedy. In
Thomas Hardy's Tragic Hero (NCF)
Ted R. Spivey claims that 'the ill-
fortune that befalls a tragic hero is the
result not only of forces working

against him from without, but of
forces within him that hasten his
downfall'. This is the case with
Hardy's heroes, although the nature
of the inner forces is usually left un-
defined. Yet they win sympathy, for
they are themselves 'far nobler than
the forces that destroy them'.

3. Criticism, &c.

G. H. Vallins examines the work of
a redoubtable predecessor in his own
field in Cobbetfs Grammar (English),
but the article may justly be included
here since it is only 'among other
things' that Cobbett was concerned
with grammar. As he himself put it,
the supreme motive for acquiring a
knowledge of grammar should be 'the
desire ... to be able to assert with
effect the rights and liberties of his
country', and the Grammar was, in
fact, 'a piece of political propaganda
aimed at the Borough-mongers'.

The Critical Attack upon the Epic
in the English Romantic Movement,
examined by Donald M. Foerster
(PMLA), was a complex matter. The
term 'epic' itself became synonymous
with narrative poetry; Brydges, for
example, said 'Lord Byron is almost
always epic; for he is almost always
narrative'. Iconoclasm extended to the
classical epics. Virgil, who had al-
ready been indicted for plagiarism, was
now accused of imperfectly under-
standing the art of poetry, as well as
of a fundamental insincerity and lack
of knowledge of human nature. 'Deep
browed Homer' still found respect in
many quarters, but the textual criti-
cisms of Heyne and Wolf already had
the effect of destroying confidence in
the structure of the poems. It was
further argued that he spoke 'pri-
marily to the primitive peoples of
ancient Greece rather than to modern
man'. An evolutionary view of poetry
developed, in short, and the epic was

208

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

no longer regarded as an 'inviolable
pattern first discovered in antiquity',
but as having been 'as protean as so-
ciety itself. Opposed to these views
was the development of a genuine his-
torical approach to ancient poetry, of
which Keble's criticism of Virgil was
an outstanding example.

A note in the Huntington Library
about Charles Lamb and Emma Isola
is published by Wallace Nethery
(HLQ). Written by William Ayrton
and dated 1848, it states that relations
between these two were 'more than
friendly'. The edition of the Lamb let-
ters by E. V. Lucas is very unreliable.
George L. Barnett remedies this, so
far as the 200-odd letters in the Hun-
tington Library are concerned, with
great thoroughness in Corrections in
the Text of Lamb's Letters (HLQ).

Two articles by Sylvan Barnett
concern Lamb's theatrical criticism.
Writing of Charles Lamb's Contri-
bution to the Theory of Dramatic Illu-
sion (PMLA\ he says that although
Lamb followed Farquhar and Dr.
Johnson in rejecting the idea of com-
plete illusion, he pursued the question
to more subtle distinctions by claiming
that the degree of illusion must differ
between tragedy and comedy. It is im-
portant that comedy should be recog-
nized as something other than real
life, for if the emotions are engaged
it will begin to develop tragic propen-
sities. Tragedy, on the other hand, in-
volves the spectator, but should never-
theless preserve a certain distance from
complete illusion, or the action will
become painful and the tragic element
be lost. An illustration is provided by
the second article, on Charles Lamb
and the Tragic Malvolio (P<2), which
shows that, although the account of
Robert Bensley's Malvolio in 'On
some of the Old Actors' was very in-
fluential in later interpretations, evi-
dence suggests that Lamb was singu-
lar in his view among his contempor-

aries, and that it was, in fact, a purely
personal conception. When the essay
was published, twenty-six years had
elapsed since he could have seen Bens-
ley act, and others found his Malvoiio
anything but tragic. The idea, more-
over, is at variance with Lamb's own
views on comedy, and must have been
evoked by the mood of reminiscence.

That the opinion of the Romantic
critics that Shakespeare is unsuited to
stage production did not pass unchal-
lenged by the Profession is shown by
Carol Jones Carlisle in a third essay
on The Nineteenth Century Actors
versus the Closet Critics of Shake-
speare (S in Ph). This essay is in two
parts. The first, under the heading
The Actor as Interpreter and Critic',
shows actors, from Charles Dibdin to
Henry Irving, insisting on 'actability'
as the supreme test of criticism. The
only dissentient voice was that of
Fanny Kemble, who distinguished
between 'dramatic' and 'theatrical'
values. Under the second heading we
have a series of testimonies, taken
from the writing of nineteenth-century
actors, to the 'Suitability of Shake-
speare's Plays to Stage Production'.

Alan Lang Strout prints excerpts
from Some Miscellaneous Letters con-
cerning Blackwood' s Magazine (NQ),
from the Blackwood Papers in the
National Library of Scotland, giving
interesting sidelights on Blackwood
himself and on some of his illustrious
contributors and associates.

'Most readers regard De Quincey's
opium visions as only meaningless
aberrations . . . De Quincey knew
better' says Brooks Wright in The
Cave of Trophonius: Myth and Real-
ity in De Quincey (NCF), showing
that the Confessions and other works
'are pieces of introspective analysis
that in some ways anticipate modern
psychology by almost a century'.

Keith Rinehart, assessing The Vic-
torian Approach to Autobiography

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

209

(Mod Phil), suggests that 'the early
Victorian emphasis was upon auto-
biography as a moral influence; the
later, upon autobiography as art' and
illustrates the point by examining a
number of essays on the subject, be-
ginning with John Foster in 1 805, who
thought that a man's memoirs should
be an aid to self-knowledge. Carlyle
saw autobiography as 'poetic' as well
as 'scientific', and of value because it
dealt in 'fact'. A writer in The North
British Review in 1870 saw it in Com-
tist terms. The aesthetic attitude was
introduced by William Bell Scott in
1 877, who suggested that the writer of
memoirs approaches his subject like
a painter before his model, endeavour-
ing to present 'realities, not mere ap-
pearances'. Leslie Stephen extended
this view in 1881, seeing it as 'the
man's own shadow cast upon the
coloured and distorted mists of me-
mory'.

Two articles deal with Carlyle's
early days. In llludo Chartis: an Initial
Study in Carlyle's Mode of Composi-
tion (MLR), Marjorie King publishes
for the first time a fragment of 'the
initial sketch of Sartor Resartus in a
Scottish setting', headed llludo Char-
tis, and catalogued at Cheyne Walk
simply as 'a manuscript of Carlyle'.
After the fragment, which consists of
six and a half pages of letter-paper,
she analyses its style and content, com-
menting in detail on the references,
and relating the piece to two subse-
quent works, Wotton Rein fried and
Sartor itself. Carlyle and 'Irving's
London Circle'; Some Unpublished
Letters by Thomas Carlyle and Mrs,
Edward Strachey, by Grace J. Calder
(PMLA), deals with his first arrival in
London. Mrs. Strachey, a great de-
votee of Irving, was aunt to Charles
Buller, to whom Carlyle was tutor.

An author's revisions often tell us a
lot, but they may sometimes provide
a problem themselves. In Newman on

B 5641 O

Rousseau: Revisions in the 'Essay on
Poetry' (NQ) Stephen Maxwell Par-
rish deals with the apparent inconsis-
tency b etween the favourable comment
on Rousseau in the 1829 version of
Newman's 'Essay' in the London Re-
view, and the reversal of this opinion
in his revision of 1871. To the later
edition Newman appended the remark
that several sentences had, on its first
publication, been changed 'by virtue
of an editor's just prerogative', and
that these had now been restored. The
editor was Blanco White, and it is
probable that the favourable view of
Rousseau was his, not Newman's.
Whether Newman published his cor-
respondence with Kingsley as a vindi-
cation, or, as Ward suggested, as a
provocation is discussed by Thomas L.
Robertson in The Kingsley-Newman
Controversy and the Apologia (MLN).

An intimate account of Ruskin in
decline is given by Robin Skelton in
John Ruskin: the Final Years. A Sur-
vey of the Ruskin Correspondence in
the John Rylands Library (BJRL).
The letters, recently acquired, are to
Mrs. Fanny Talbot and her son, and
to Miss Blanche Atkinson. Those to
the latter are to be edited later, and
are not dealt with in the present article.
The importance of the others, which
date from December 1874 until the
time of Ruskin's death, 'lies in the
total picture they create, rather than
the details they give'. A few additional
papers deal with the Guild of St.
George.

The Spectator for 20 and 27 August
1864 carried a public invitation to
Matthew Arnold to write a criticism
of Tennyson, suggesting that this
should provide a contrast between the
school that preferred rather 'to stunt
itself on some sides than to admit irre-
gular or one-sided growths on any'
and the Laureate who 'in better con-
sonance with the English tone of ima-
ginative literature of every age, tends

210

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

to luxuriance and redundance'. Com-
menting on this in a letter to J. D.
Campbell, Arnold suggested that he
might, if he complied, 'say something
so totally different from what the wri-
ter in the Spectator supposes*. 'Can it
be', says J. D. Jump in Matthew Arn-
old and 'Enoch Arden' (NQ) 'that we
do not correctly understand Arnold's
attitude to Tennyson in 1864', since
the writer's suppositions seem plaus-
ible enough?

Some ambiguities and inaccuracies
in E. K. Brown's Studies in the Text
of Matthew Arnold's Prose Works are
pointed out by Frances G. Townsend
in A Neglected Edition of Arnold's
'St. Paul and Protestantism' (RES).
Brown refers to the first edition as 'the
edition of 1870', but there were two
editions in 1870, and a letter from
Arnold to his mother on 15 November

1870 shows that the second of these
contained notable revisions, some of
which are here indicated.

Arnold's 1853 Preface is only the
best-known example of a conscious
and widespread 'minority tradition'
of anti-romanticism in nineteenth-
century criticism. The principal organ
of this opinion was the Quarterly Re-
view, in which a series of articles dur-
ing the 1870s attacked 'the encroach-
ment of the imagination on the domain
of experience'. One such article, on
'Wordsworth and Gray', forms the
basis of Pater and the Victorian Anti-
Romantics by R. V. Johnson (Ess Crit)
in which Pater, who regarded 'the
problem of communication as involv-
ing merely the accommodation of
objective form to inner conception' is
seen as typical of the object of these
attacks.

XIV. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
By MARJORIE THOMPSON

IT is with a reassuring sense of con-
tinuity, of belonging after all to a past,
that the section may be opened with
new editions of two novelists whose
dates fall in the twentieth century, but
whose spirits linger in the nineteenth.
A. C. Ward in his Introduction to
Joseph Vance 1 quotes William de
Morgan's confession that he had 'blun-
dered into the wrong generation', and
points out that, though his work was
obscured by the innovations of the
new generation of novelists, its 'roots
were deep in the soil of the English
literary tradition'. He notes de Mor-
gan's 'unparalleled achievement' in
not beginning to write novels till he
was in his sixties, and then producing
nine, of prodigious length, and of such
quality as to stand comparison with
Dickens. Indeed he finds him at times
superior to Dickens, particularly in
his power to handle sentiment, and in
his portrayal of women. The Introduc-
tion includes a pleasant biographical
section.

G. M. Young introduces John Meade
Falkner's two novels, 2 constructing an
attractive portrait of the writer as one
of that extinct species, the 'Victorian
businessman-scholar', with the added
faculty for weaving romantic stories
coloured by his personal artistic and
antiquarian interests stories with
plots so 'skilfully conducted' that their

1 Joseph Vance, An Ill-Written Auto-
biography, by William de Morgan, with an
Introduction by A. C. Ward. O.U.P.
(World's Classics Series), pp. xxvii+595.
85, 6d.

2 The Nebuly Coat and The Lost Stradi-
varius, by John Meade Falkner, with an
Introduction by G. M, Young and a Per-
sonal Note by Sir Edmund Craster. O.U.P.
(World's Classics Series), pp. xiv+564.
&. 6d.

many technical faults were 'dissolved
in the atmosphere' the author created.
Edmund Craster's Personal Note re-
calls a writer as fascinating as his
stories. The remark that 'everything
about him was big and upon a lavish
scale' might well apply to the work of
both these novelists, whose minds and
imaginations had the Victorian quality
of amplitude, now proving so rare and
refreshing to the generation into which
they had 'blundered'.

R. L. Stevenson is sumptuously
served in an edition of the Picturesque
Notes with a Preface by Janet Adam
Smith, 3 in which she points out that
the remarkable photographs which
accompany the text have attempted to
see Edinburgh through Stevenson's
eyes, to follow his method of selection
of detail, to 'make the same comment 1 ;
and it would appear that the photo-
grapher has translated into his own
medium some of Stevenson's 'intellec-
tual passion'.

Aatos Ojala 4 makes a thorough and
unified study of Wilde's aestheticism,
showing how it underlies his 'person-
ality, penetrates his philosophy, de-
termines his art and gives his style
colour and cadence'. Though faulty in
presentation the thesis is useful in its
careful assembly of data, in its rela-
tion of aestheticism to romanticism
on the one hand and to decadence on
the other, and.in its clear indication of

3 Edinburgh: Picturesque Notes > by
Robert Louis Stevenson, with 23 photo-
graphs by Alvin Langdon Coburn and a
Preface by Janet Adam Smith. Hart-Davis,
pp. 107. 305.

4 Aestheticism and Oscar Wilde, Part I,
Life and Letters, by Aatos Ojala. Hensinki :
Academia Scientiarum Fennica. pp. 231.
F. rnk. 800.

212

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

the inevitable challenge it offered to
the Victorian ethical code 'aesthetics
are higher than ethics'. A further
volume is contemplated, to deal with
Wilde's literary style.

Carl Benson in Conrad's Two
Stones of Initiation (PMLA) exam-
ines Conrad's purpose in writing two
stories on the theme of initiation into
maturity, i.e. The Secret Sharer and
The Shadow Line, leading to the con-
clusion that the second is a 'critical
judgment' of the first; that The Secret
Sharer shows its hero 'conquering the
feeling of personal insufficiency',
'striking out for a new destiny',
whereas The Shadow Line demon-
strates that no man can be self-sustain-
ing, that his destiny is always involved
in that of others, and that in learning
this a man reaches maturity. More-
over the first story is pure fiction,
written very quickly, whereas the
more mature work is an 'authentic
spiritual autobiography'.

Thomas Hardy has once more in-
spired distinguishedscholarship. Doug-
las Brown, 5 after a brief biographical
sketch, firmly stresses the importance
of the agricultural as against the philo-
sophical background in Hardy's work.
He claims that Hardy cannot be un-
derstood without some conception of
the 'agricultural tragedy' of 1870-
1902, gives a clear account of rural
conditions at this time and quotes an
important but little-known article
which Hardy contributed to Long-
man's Magazine in 1883 on The Dor-
setshire Labourer', lamenting the
alarming depopulation of the country-
side. Tess is defined as an 'agricultural
tragedy'; indeed all the novels are
described as the 'weaving of a ballad
tale with agricultural environment',
the failure of Jude being attributed to
its 'despair' 'a despair unalleviated

5 Thomas Hardy, by Douglas Brown.
Longmans (Men and Books Series), pp. x+
196. I0s.6d.

by any confidence that the country
still holds restorative power'. While
the uniqueness of Hardy's art is seen
to lie in the relevance of his stories to
the agricultural theme, the nostalgic
tendency involved in it constitutes his
weakness. As a rustic poet Hardy is
usefully compared with Wordsworth,
1 whose leech-gatherer 'gathers no
leeches', whose countryside has 'no
social reality', whereas Hardy's charac-
ters draw their very lifeblood from
their rural crafts and occupations.
This is a stimulating book which sets
one thinking afresh about Hardy. [Re-
viewed TLS 394.]

Evelyn Hardy's is an admirable
study 6 that is likely to prove a stan-
dard reference book for facts, but
which at the same time sensitively de-
fines the quality of Hardy's work,
traces its development and gives a
stereoscopically clear portrait of the
man himself, without seeking to flood-
light his temperamental shadowinesses
or probe curiously into his natural re-
ticences. This is a wise and always
human handling of material that is
rich to the point of embarrassment.
Excellent use is made of sources such
as Hardy's reading and marginal an-
notations, and of unpublished writing,
particularly of the first draft of The
Dynasts which is shown to reveal
Hardy's individual method of revising,
not by the usual pruning and cutting,
but by elaborating and enlarging the
essentials with which he begins. Her
view of the tragedy of Tess differs
from Douglas Brown's in that she sees
Tess as the victim of her own nature,
such widely divergent interpretations
being a testimony to the complexity
of Hardy's genius, always beyond the
reach of final definition. Turning to
Hardy's verse, she places him in an
exalted position as 'the most signifi-

6 Thomas Hardy, A Critical Biography*
by Evelyn Hardy. Hogarth Press, pp. x+
342. 25s.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

213

cant poet between Tennyson and
Yeats'. This is a sound work of scho-
larship which has the satisfying quality
of thoroughly digested material shaped
into an orderly work of art.

In 'Jude the Obscure'. Hardy's In-
dictment of Christianity (NCF) Nor-
man Holland, Jr., sees the novel as set
apart from the others in that it 'treats
people and events both realistically
and as nonrealistic symbols for ideas';
he claims that Hardy uses symbols
from the Christian faith to 'criticize
so-called Christian society and the
idea of self -sacrifice'. He usefully
groups the clusters of images, e.g. the
'pig-imagery' that symbolizes the ani-
mality of Arabella, and points out the
Biblical significance of the names of
the characters. Little Father Time is
shown to be a 'Christ-figure', whose
martyrdom is a mockery and a failure.
Only the animal and the unaspiring
characters survive, and the 'message is
that the only part of Christianity worth
saving is not an ideal of sacrifice, but
rather the notion that somehow we
can make this life under Fate's rule
more bearable by love for our fellow
men'. 'As a Christian allegory' the
book becomes 'a terrible indictment
of Christianity in Victorian society'.
This is convincing, but one has the
impression that Hardy laid more stress
on the 'Victorian society' than is ap-
parent in this interpretation. The 'flaw'
which all readers sense and attempt to
explain in Jude is seen to lie in sym-
bols that operate at 'two entirely dif-
ferent levels'; one group of symbols
reinforces reality, the other assumes
a meaning dependent on the characters
becoming 'ideas, not actualities'.

Carl J. Weber's edition of Hardy's
Letters 7 is a handsomely produced
volume, almost fastidiously annotated,
comprising those letters which are now

7 The Letters of Thomas Hardy, edited
with an Introduction and Notes by Carl J.
Weber. Colby College Press, pp. 126. $5.

housed in the Colby College Library.
Considering that they are a chance
selection which have happened to find
the same resting place they are sur-
prisingly representative and they are
also typical in that their decorum and
restraint reflect the reserved nature of
the writer. The editor points out that
they include a number of names that
have not yet found their way into any
biography. In an Epilogue he pays an
affectionate tribute to the character of
Hardy as revealed in his letters, re-
marking significantly that as a corre-
spondent he was no 'self-starter', for
his letters are all in reply to others,
and summing up his qualities in
Hardy's own word, 'simple single-
mindedness'.

To turn to the opposite of the simple
or the singleminded, D. M. Davin
introduces Katherine Mansfield's
stories, 8 giving a fair and balanced
assessment of her achievement. His
selection offers the best of her work in
chronological order, as far as is pos-
sible to ascertain. She is defined as a
master of form, characterized by the
intensity which the form demands.
Born to be the nostalgic exile, she is
able to find security only in distance
and the past. Perhaps her gift for
creating 'atmosphere' is not suffi-
ciently acknowledged, since in this she
seems peculiarly successful, in that her
atmosphere is not a vague enveloping
woolliness, but is directly irradiated
from her characters.

Antony Alpers in his biography of
her 9 has the advantage of being a New
Zealander born almost next door to
the Beauchamp family home, and thus
is able to assemble at first hand much
background detail which fills in gaps

8 Katherine Mansfield: Selected Stones,
chosen and introduced by D. M. Davin.
O.U.P. (World's Classics Series), pp. xviii+
354. 5s.

9 Katherine Mansfield, by Antony Alpers.
Jonathan Cape. pp. xvi-j-376. 2ls.

214

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

and frequently establishes the authen-
ticity of Katherine Mansfield's New
Zealand settings, while giving firm-
ness and continuity to the known facts
of her troubled existence. Alpers has
delved with enthusiasm into early
material, such as school magazine
contributions and library borrowings,
and has also persuaded her first hus-
band, William Orton, and her devoted
friend, Ida Baker, to yield personal in-
formation and reminiscences hitherto
not on record. This industry in estab-
lishing biographical accuracy is bal-
anced by a sound critical perception
in the assessment of Katherine Mans-
field's writing, though at times one is
brought so close to the artist that it is
difficult to see the art in proper per-
spective.

Ian A. Gordon 10 gives a concise,
clear, and sensitive account of Kather-
ine Mansfield's work, pointing out her
'directive' influence on the short story,
which he compares with that of James
Joyce on the novel; after these two, he
considers, 'neither the novel nor the
short story can ever be quite the same
again'. He stresses the lyrical quality
of the stories, insisting that they should
not be read purely as narrative, and
pays a tribute to the prose style 'one
which could borrow from poetry, but
nevertheless remains prose, firmly
based on a simple and colloquial move-
ment'.

Middleton Murry is rightly respon-
sible for the definitive edition of
Katherine Mansfield's Journal, 11 re-
printed from the 1927 edition, but
with passages restored that were then
suppressed, and with the addition of
passages from the Scrapbooks which
had not been discovered when the

10 Katherine Mansfield, by Ian A. Gor-
don. Longmans (for the British Council
and the National Book League. Writers
and Their Work Series, No. 49). pp. 36. 2s.

11 Journal of Katherine Mansfield, ed. by
J. Middleton Murry. Constable, pp. x+
336. SO*.

latter were published in 1929; Murry
also includes passages from William
Orton's novel The Last Romantic
which are obviously authentic extracts
from a 1 91 1 Journal. The biographical
note included in the previous edition
is now omitted, having been super-
seded by the work of recent biogra-
phers, but the passage relating to the
materials of the Journal is reproduced
in substance. The originally suppressed
passages include fragments from
1904 to 1912 which Katherine Mans-
field had intended to destroy, but
which had accidentally survived, and
'since they have been used as material
by her biographers it seemed neces-
sary to include them in what claims to
be a definitive edition of her Journal".

As a postscript to these Katherine
Mansfield studies comes Celeste Tur-
ner Wright's Darkness as a Symbol in
Katherine Mansfield (Mod Phil) in
which, having laid down that symbol-
ism is the core of her narrative, she
examines the recurrent symbols of
darkness tunnels, black holes, dark
waters defining their connotations
of fear, death, loneliness, eternity. She
notes the courageous triumph over
these dark fears which Katherine
Mansfield achieved before she died.

D. H. Lawrence suitably follows.
Robert Liddell in Lawrence and Dr.
Leavis: The Case of St. Maur (Ess
Crit) challenges Leavis's high estima-
tion of Lawrence, supports T. S.
Eliot's charge of 'uncouthness', corro-
borating with reference to weaknesses
in St. Maur blunders in social titles,
parade of learning, and other evi-
dences of vulgarity, which he thinks
vitiate Lawrence's achievement. He
disagrees that his style is 'fluent and
racy speech', defining it as 'fluent and
racy journalism'.

Fresh fields of research are ex-
plored by Richard E. Haymaker 12 who

12 From Pampas to Hedgerows and
Downs. A Study of W. H. Hudson, by

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

215

reaffirms the significance of W. H.
Hudson in modern literature. He
wholly succeeds in his aim to 'give a
unified picture of Hudson's total ex-
perience'. This is a deeply conceived,
quietly enthusiastic, and discerningly
critical study which sustains the under-
lying unity in Hudson's unusual career,
and stimulates a desire to re-read him.
He dwells on the importance of the
South American childhood, places
Hudson clearly in the tradition of the
outdoor essay, and concludes that
it is the combination of artist and
naturalist which distinguishes him.
The writer is skilful in demonstrating
what Hudson was not his lack of
interest in 'mere landscape' or 'cosmic
awe' removed him from the roman-
tics, his weakness in drama and dia-
logue prevented him from success in
the novel. His genre is 'the romance of
natural history', which gains impres-
siveness from his 'baldness of actual-
ity'. Hudson brought anthropology
and zoology very close together, indeed
almost made them one, especially in
theories such as the attribution of an
aesthetic sense to animals; indeed one
of the reasons for his importance in
this generation is his demonstration
of the possibility of a liaison between
art and science. The book could per-
haps have been more compressed, as
there is a good deal of repetition, but
the charm of presentation carries off
all such weaknesses with unselfcon-
scious grace. Hudson's solitary per-
sonality pervades the book, and
whether he is galloping over the
South American plains, watching
geese on the Norfolk marshes, rescu-
ing a hesitant nun from the finality of
the convent, tending spiders or peering
into pond-life, he reasserts the dignity
of man, at once in his essential loneli-
ness and in his bond with nature and
the animals in a pantheistic creation.

Richard E. Haymaker. New York : Book-
man Associates, pp. 398. $5.

Virginia Woolf 's aims and preoccu-
pations are explored in two studies by
Peter and Margaret Havard- Williams.
In Perceptive Contemplation in the
Work of Virginia Woolf (Eng Stud)
they examine her incorporation of the
theme of artistic perception into the
more or less traditional form of the
novel (which, it is pointed out, she
only abandoned completely in The
Waves). The bringing together of
characters who illustrate the struggle
for aesthetic perception reveals an
analysis of the novelist's own creative
processes, particularly the attempt to
define the border between conscious-
ness and unconsciousness, between
dream and the blinding recognition of
reality. It is claimed that The Waves
'marks the climax of her powerful
interpretation of the creative mind'.
In Mystical Experience in Virginia
Woolf s 'The Waves' (Ess Crif) the
same writers again stress Virginia
Woolfs efforts to bring into relief the
work of the mind, and show that Rhoda
and Louis are the core of the book,
each hostile to humanity; but whereas
Louis resents it because he cannot re-
duce it to any rational order, Rhoda is
frustrated because it comes between
her and her vision of beauty. Rhoda
is the mystic who can never define or
correlate her vision, reflecting Virginia
Woolfs own problems, which are
surely the prevailing problems of the
modern mystic, bereft as he is of faith.

Virginia Woolf is clearly related to
her background and intellectual circle
in J. K. Johnstone's study 13 which
gives a full and lively account, from
the literary point of view, of the philo-
sophical and aesthetic principles which
inspired and united the 'Bloomsbury
group'. It becomes clear that G. E.
Moore, the Cambridge humanists, and

13 The Bloomsbury Group, A Study of
E. M. Forster, Lytton Strachey, Virginia
Woolf, and their Circle, by J. K. Johnstone.
Seeker & Warburg, pp.x+383. 25s.

216

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Roger Fry were the seminal minds
operating on this circle, and their in-
fluence is traced on each member of
it. They are all seen in relation to the
Victorian ethical code against which
they set up new standards of good
taste and aesthetic ideals, taking rea-
son, sensibility, and intuition as their
guides, and seeking an integrity deeper
than that of morals (with more philo-
sophy in their creed than the aesthetes
of an earlier generation). In their ad-
herence to the standards of pure art
they are contrasted with the assertive
didacticism of Bernard Shaw. A most
illuminating passage concerns Fry's
theories of the novel his regret that
as an art form it never became 'an
organic aesthetic whole'. This seems
exactly to define Virginia Woolfs
achievement, in making the novel not
only a representation of life, but a
work of art with the pure aesthetic
appeal of form, tone, design, usually
associated with painting.

James Joyce as usual proves a mine
of opportunity for research into
sources and meanings. Francis Rus-
sell in an unorthodox, sometimes dra-
matic, study, 14 in which Joyce is placed
alongside Kafka and Gertrude Stein,
takes a bold and independent view.
He begins quietly, but firmly, indi-
cating how exactly Ulysses accorded
with the Zeitgeist, stressing its inevita-
bility and directive force it was
'more than a book, it was a move-
ment'. He then draws a close analogy
between Joyce's obscurity and that of
the Alexandrian poets, a 'wilfully ob-
scure coterie', with whom 'chaos, dis-
sonance and obscurity' prevailed, in
a 'parallel cultural period'. Russell is
nothing if not downright in his judge-
ments, maintaining that Ulysses loses
clarity as it advances and becomes a
Veb spun by stubborn egotism and

14 Three Studies in Twentieth Century
Obscurity, by Francis Russell. Ashford:
Hand and Flower Press, pp. 124. 9s. 6d.

woven by unbalanced pedantry'. He
goes further; in Finnegans Wake he is
of the opinion that Joyce is 'simply
amusing himself, that 'he has basi-
cally nothing to say', that his 'message
is that he has none'. He believes that
Joyce will not be accepted by the next
generation. This is provocative and
convincing up to a point, but it could
be argued that it is precisely the lack
of message which marks out Joyce as
the prophet of a mythless, faithless
age; that it is because he thinks so
much and knows so much, can ana-
lyse, break down, accumulate, and
juxtapose, but never find a synthesis,
that he is an 'inevitable' phenomenon
of the twentieth century.

Joseph Prescott contributes some
useful notes on Joyce. In James Joyces
'Stephen Hero' (JEGP) he demon-
strates the difference between the ori-
ginal and the version incorporated
into the last 93 pages of A Portrait of
the Artist as a Young Man. The dif-
ference lies in a change in the relation
between character and author; exter-
nal comment has been removed in the
later version, the author has become
indiscernible (as Joyce maintained that
he should be). This change is claimed
to symbolize the development of the
modern novel in its abandonment of
the 'partisan manager'. It is also de-
monstrated that Stephen Hero can be
useful in elucidating certain scenes in
Ulysses. Prescott achieves further elu-
cidations in Local Allusions in Joyce's
'Ulysses' (PMLA). In Concerning the
Genesis of 'Finnegans Wake 1 (PMLA)
he pursues an intricate course of re-
search to establish that Harriet Weaver
did once give Joyce a pamphlet about
a giant's grave in the churchyard at
Penrith, Cumberland, but that this
bears only the very remotest resem-
blance to the story of Finn McCool in
Finnegans Wake, and certainly did
not directly inspire or influence it, as
has been claimed by Eugene Jolas

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

217

(Partisan Review, vm, ii, March-
April 1941). His fourth contribution is
a translation of Georges Borach's
Conversations with James Joyce (Col-
lege English). Borach was one of
Joyce's language students in Zurich,
and his conversations record amongst
other items, Joyce's view of the Ulys-
ses myth as the 'most human in world
literature', and his description of his
Sirens chapter as having employed all
the technical resources of music.

H. Eichner in A Note on the Cloud-
Girl in 'Finnegans Wake' (Eng Stud)
finds a link between Joyce's Nuvoletta
and De La Motte Fouque's Undine,
not only in verbal echoes, but in the
illustration of Joyce's theory of cycles,
where the nymph returning to her
native stream symbolizes Joyce's be-
lief that all things return to their ori-
ginal element.

J. S. Atherton in Spiritualism in
'Finnegans Wake' (NQ) traces the
source of the spiritualist seance scene
to Conan Doyle's H istory of Spiritual-
ism and points out that Joyce works
into his scene the names of several
famous mediums.

In The Theme of the Red Carnation
in Joyce's 'Ulysses' (Neophil) P. P. J.
Van Caspel is of the opinion that the
obscurities of Joyce have been unduly
exaggerated, that the clue to his tech-
nique is the total indiscernibility of
the author, everything being recorded
through the characters. The red flower
worn by Boylan, Mrs. Bloom's lover,
is seen with a different sense of signi-
ficance on five different occasions by
different people, and becomes a sym-
bol of this 'victorious virility'.

Obscurities have no part in K. W.
Jonas's anthology 15 which assembles
the 'best critical articles and book
reviews' calculated to 'present Mr.
Maugham in the light of critical

15 The Maugham Enigma) An Anthology
edited by Klaus W. Jonas. Peter Owen.
pp.217. 15s.

opinion', and contribute to a better
understanding of him. The extracts
differ in value, some being hardly
above gossip-writer level and retailing
the famous man's daily habits and
taste in food. Most critics note the
urbanity, the scepticism, the cynicism;
Maugham himself reminds his readers
that his only aim is to entertain and
give pleasure; V. S. Pritchett qualifies
the scepticism, noticing 'the virtues of
pity, tolerance, humanity, an eye for
humbug and a love of the diversity of
human nature'. Maugham's adherence
to a traditional form and outlook, and
his refusal to join modern trends and
experiments are confirmed in his un-
compromising opinion of symbolism:
'I don't understand symbolism in fic-
tion. It is only a fashion of the day, so
far as I can judge, and it will disappear.
What is a symbol? You say one thing
and you mean another. Why the hell
shouldn't you say it right out?' Theo-
dore Spencer gives a neat assessment;
referring to Eliot's remark that
Hardy's writing 'sometimes reaches
sublimity without having passed
through the stage of being good', he
observes that 'Maugham's prose is
frequently good but never reaches
sublimity. His stories are limited in
time, and, as it were, limited in space
they have no fourth dimension.*

Another adherent to tradition, but
with a difference, is examined in Bar-
bara Hardy's Form in Joyce Gary's
Novels (Ess Crif) in which she demon-
strates Gary's 'conspicuous pattern-
making' in the tradition of the novel
of family life, contrasting it with the
shapelessness of other family sagas,
finding that the musical analogy is the
most appropriate to describe it. The
organic shaping is the thing which
gives to the best of his novels the rare
enough aesthetic pleasure of assertive
form.' This preoccupation with form
she finds develops into a danger in
Gary's later novels, but the stress is

218

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

laid on the organic necessity of the
form, which is imposed by the histori-
cal process.

Two foreign contributions complete
the survey of prose. Vittoria Sanna 16
discusses Bennett's novels of the Five
Towns and Magnus Wolfensberger 17
makes a study of the widely varied
achievement of Jerome K. Jerome.

Studies in poetry have been for the
most part confined to notes and com-
ments, with only one or two full-
length works of criticism. John Hollo-
way in Poetry and Plain Language:
The Verse of C. M. Doughty (Ess Crif)
defends Doughty against G. M. Hop-
kins's criticism that his archaic verse
was an 'affectation'. It is argued con-
vincingly that the philology was sub-
ordinate to the poetry, that Doughty's
is not a mere literary language of 'il-
lustrious cliche', but that 'at its best it
eludes the ordinary objections to a
special language for poetry' because
in its own strange way it achieves 'what
ordinary language is relied on to
achieve*, that is, it becomes 'the readi-
est vehicle for what is really grasped
and lived by the writer'. Only in the
later work does it become 'fidgety
archaism' because Doughty is not then
drawing upon vital experience.

Tom Burns Haber in Housmaris
Downward Eye (JEGP) seeks to de-
fine the experience which lies behind
Housman's bitterness and searches
the unpublished contents of four note-
books (now in the Library of Con-
gress) in which Housman jotted down
verses from 1885 to 1925. These were
suppressed by himself and his brother
but have now been legally released.
The poems are shown to indicate some
unhappy love-affair which may have
occurred during Housman's Oxford

16 Arnold Bennet e i Romanzi Delle
Cinque Citta, by Vittoria Sanna. Florence :
Marzocco. pp. 305. L. 900.

17 Jerome Klapka Jerome, Sein litera-
risches Werk, by Magnus Wolfensberger.
Zurich: Juris- Verlag. pp. 146. Fr. 9.65.

period. Personal relationships are sug-
gested in passages that the poet 'erased,
rejected or suppressed'. In another
note, A. E, Housman: Astronomer-
Poet (Eng Stud), Haber traces Hous-
man's interest in astronomy to his
translation of M. Manilius (whom he
did not altogether respect) and then
identifies the symbols from astronomy
in his poetry, showing how the astro-
nomical ellipsis has become 'the norm
of his creative, shaping mind', so that
the 'circle, confined and confining, is
the symbol of A. E. Housman, the
poet'.

C. Hobart Edgren in A Hardy-
Housman Parallel (NQ) draws atten-
tion to the likeness between Hous-
man's Is My Team Plowing? and
Hardy's Ah, are you digging on my
Grave?, and after remarking that the
former was Hardy's favourite among
Housman's verses, suggests that it was
most probably in his mind when he
wrote his own poem.

Hardy's central philosophy and
faith are well defined by Richard
Church in Thomas Hardy as revealed
in 'The Dynasts' (Stud ang), based on
a lecture delivered at the Sorbonne
for the Association France-Grande-
Bretagne. He stresses the singleness
of Hardy's vision in this epic-drama,
identifying it with the whole tradition
of the Englislwnystique, the expression
of a corporate national spirit. He
claims that Hardy's originality lies in
'making metaphysical interpretation
itself become 'a corporate part of the
dramatic events'. He makes a power-
ful attack on the definition of Hardy
as a pessimist, quoting the poet's be-
lief that the 'Unconscious Will' itself
is in process of evolution towards
awareness of itself. He claims that
Hardy works on the plane of Milton
and Dante in that he produces a truly
great epic work, 'dateless' because of
its 'moral greatness'.
Some notable contributions have

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

219

been made to the mass of scholarship
steadily accumulating round the work
of W. B. Yeats. Richard Ellmann 18
adds to his distinguished research in
this field an authoritative and remark-
ably lucid study which traces Yeats's
whole manner of thinking and poetic
growth, emphasizing the organic con-
tinuity of his maturing process. His
final view of Yeats is concentrated
and defined in an illuminating com-
parison with T. S. Eliot; where Eliot
'puts his faith in spiritual perfection,
the ultimate conversion of sense to
spirit', Yeats 'stands with Michel-
angelo . . . for the profane perfection
of mankind, in which sense and spirit
are fully and harmoniously exploited'.
The study of the growth of Yeats's
system of symbols is admirably clear
and unified. Ellmann urges Yeats's
assertion that symbols are untrans-
latable, but also points out his irresis-
tible impulse to make schemes of
things. There would appear to be some
confusion and discrepancy in Yeats's
mind between the 'untranslatableness'
and the schematization of his symbols,
which accounts for a good deal of his
obscurity, and is indeed a fundamental
weakness. It is, however, partially ex-
plained by Ellmann's isolation of that
quality in Yeats which he describes
as 'affirmative capability', which arose
from his belief that it was the 'poet's
duty to invade the province of the in-
tellect as well as of the emotions'. Per-
haps the highest achievement of this
important book is its clear and satisfy-
ing analysis of A Vision.

Allan Wade's collection of Yeats's
letters, 19 though monumental, does not
claim to be complete. Letters have
been chosen for their autobiographi-
cal content, but some of obvious im-
portance in this connexion are not

18 The Identity of Yeats, by Richard
Ellmann. Macmillan. pp. ix+343. 25 s.

19 The Letters of W. B. Yeats, ed. by
Allan Wade. Hart-Davis, pp. 938. 3. 3s.

available, having been lost or des-
troyed, as for example those to Maud
Gonne, George Moore, and J. M.
Synge. There are, at her request, none
of the letters to Mrs. Yeats. However,
the much that remains is of the highest
interest. The letters are presented in
six chronological sections, with a help-
ful biographical introduction to each,
and when read in entirety support the
impression made by the poetry of a
man of great spiritual and emotional
dignity, for Yeats, much as he needed
to communicate and share experience,
remains curiously aloof to his most
intimate correspondents, never using
them as a sort of receptacle for over-
flowing personal emotions; neither as
letter- writer nor as poet did Yeats ever
yield to complete abandon. In both
these capacities he is an interesting
contrast to Keats.

As usual, Yeats's sources have given
rise to much scholarly activity. Allan
Donaldson in A Note on W. B. Yeats's
"Sailing to Byzantium' (NQ) discusses
the full implication of the 'dying ani-
mal' image in the third stanza, relating
it to Yeats's theosophical theories
about reincarnation, which he con-
siders give the image a literal mean-
ing.

Donald Pearce in Yeats's 'The Del-
phic Oracle upon Plotinus' (NQ)
quotes the relevant passage from Por-
phyry's Life of Plotinus, in which the
pleasures of Elysium are described,
and indicates how Yeats adapted this,
making it more dramatic by describ-
ing Plotinus's struggling to reach the
Elysian delights, and not merely en-
joying them.

Peter Ure in Yeats and the Prophecy
of Eunapius (NQ) comments on some
lines in The Resurrection, showing
that Yeats drew upon F, Cumont's
Astrology and Religion among the
Greeks and Romans, and that the
phrase 'fabulous, formless darkness'
derives from Thomas Whitaker's The

220

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Neo-Platonists, where it appears in
that form, and not from Gibbon, who
gives it in the original Greek.

Leo Spitzer writes On Yeats' s Poem
'Leda and the Swan' (Mod Phil) in
opposition to Hoyt Trowbridge's
'Longinian analysis' of the poem
(Mod Phil li. 118-29), which he con-
siders amounts 'not to a Longinian
analysis of Yeats, but to a Yeatsian
confirmation of Longinus'. Rather
than to examine what is 'cataloguable'
he prefers to search for the particular
characteristics of the poem, and so
analyses the 'rendering of the time-
place sequence in the portentous event
of the rape of Leda by the swan-
god'.

Roland Blenner-Hassett in Yeats'
Use of Chaucer (Anglid) examines the
relationship between Yeats's moon
symbolism in A Vision and Chaucer's
use of astrological phenomena. He
points out that Yeats was studying
Chaucer intensively in the year 1910,
and demonstrates that, though he
never acknowledged the debt, he took
some hints for the theories of the
Annus Mundus from Chaucer, quot-
ing especially from The Franklin's
Tale (the passage concerning the
'eighte and twenty mansiouns' of the
'moone') and from The Parliament of
Fowls (Scipio's dream). He claims that
4 at some level of memory' Yeats's
reading of Chaucer 'may have oper-
ated on his imaginative processes as
he composed A Vision and such
poetry as "The Phases of the Moon" '.

T. S. Eliot's sources and references
have also inspired further note and
comment. Kenneth Muir in Kipling
and T. S, Eliot (NQ) publishes a sug-
gestion first put forward by the late
Wilfred Rowland Childe, for many
years a lecturer at the University of
Leeds, that The Journey of the Magi
shows the influence of Kipling's story,
The Man who would be King.

Robert D. Wagner, in The Meaning

of Eliot's Rose-Garden (PMLA\ ob-
serves that modern consciousness has
exalted the imagination to a supreme
position, and that the consequent at-
tribution of mystical experience to a
special faculty in man vitiates divine
inspiration; which has its effect on the
meaning of Eliot's 'moment in the
rose-garden'. This symbolic moment
is identified with Dante's meeting with
Beatrice, when 'the world of spirit
descended into the world of sense';
but Eliot, living in an age when the
spiritual is not identified with the
supernatural, cannot comprehend the
moment. Reality can only be ap-
proached through the imagination. It
lies beyond the mind. And we are
distracted from it by our human life.
In his exploration of words Eliot is
shown to have reached the conclusion
that reality is Incarnation, but he fur-
ther develops the theory that 'In my
beginning is my end'. To find that the
new reality is 'continuous with the
reality we left behind' is to 'escape the
disillusion of a world for whom God
can be no more than the imagination
which creates Him*.

Harold E. Cook, in A Search for
the Ideal: An Interpretation of T. S.
Eliot's 'Marina' (Bucknell Review),
follows the imagery through the poem
to show how it symbolizes the poet's
mental and spiritual experiences in the
quest of his ideal, which is itself not
clearly defined, is even doubted, but
offers some permanent reality beyond
that of the ship of life in which he
voyages.

Cecil Day Lewis 20 has gathered all
his poems into one volume covering
the years 1929 to the present day
(1954), but, as he points out in the
Preface, with the omission of the last
fourteen pages of A Time to Dance
and all but two choruses of Noah and
the Waters. In looking back over his

20 The Collected Poems of C. Day Lewis.
Cape. pp. 370. 215.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

221

work of the last twenty-five years he
speaks of his surprise at finding so
many 'buried selves', but is aware of
constant themes which link these
selves together, and which are them-
selves 'the personal tradition of the
poet his one continuity, defining and
preserving, through every change of
language, every change of heart, what
is essential to him'. Reading these
poems is to re-live the last twenty-five
years, so closely does the poet echo
the changing thoughts and values of
the period.

Dylan Thomas is naturally stimu-
lating many critics into definition and
appraisal. Daniel Jones 21 in his Pre-
face to Under Milk Wood gives an
interesting account of its growth in
the poet's mind, relating it to a broad-
cast talk on a small Welsh town given
ten years ago. He points out that
Thomas died before he was able to
revise it, and that it was sent off to the
B.B.C. with the 'omission of some
projected ballads and unfinished mate-
rial for the closing section'. The edi-
tion includes Notes on the Pronun-
ciation (it being made clear that the
language is Anglo-Welsh, as Thomas
spoke no Welsh), and the Settings of
the Songs.

Derek Stanford 22 writes a detailed
guide to the understanding of Dylan
Thomas's poems. He defines him as
'the least literary of poets', and traces
his development from his early 'bio-
logical' period to the height of his
achievement in Deaths and Entrances
when he began to look outwards as
well as inwards, and then notes that
his later poems show his 'medium per-
fected but no development of inspira-
tion'. Under Milk Wood comes as a

21 Under Milk Wood, A Play for Voices,
by Dylan Thomas. Preface and Musical
Settings by Daniel Jones. Dent. pp. ix+
101. Ss. 6 d.

22 Dylan Thomas, A Literary Study, by
Derek Stanford. Neville Spearman, pp. 194,.

natural result of the gradual tendency
outwards towards drama. Stanford
methodically holds up poem by poem
for scrutiny and analysis, though
wisely retreating from interpretation
at times. He admits that the obscurity
may at times be a leg-pull' but takes
it to be more probably due to the
imagination outstripping the intellect,
and quotes Thomas's description of
the way in which he allowed images
to 'breed' in his mind. Perhaps this
book fails to give a satisfying assess-
ment of Thomas's whole achievement,
but it is a useful guide to the grasp of
detail.

Elder Olson 23 in a study based on
lectures succeeds in indicating the
broad essentials of Dylan Thomas's
work in an admirably clear and satis-
fying manner. He finds it remarkable
that the poetry has had its effect even
before it is understood. Admitting that
Thomas is unclassifiable, he neverthe-
less sees him as dealing with old
themes, though in a new manner, and
marked by a use of private myth and
symbol; he has no social reference, he
is unrelated to any tradition. Thomas's
treatment of symbol is excellently ex-
pounded, and is related to the range
of his imagination, which 'enters into
areas of experience hitherto unex-
plored', and is therefore difficult for
the reader to follow. Distinctions be-
tween metaphor and symbol, between
melodrama and tragedy, are defined
in a manner useful in any context, but
particularly so in assessing Thomas,
who is accorded truly tragic stature.
He is shown also to possess the ease
and disturbing quality of awesome-
ness. The weaknesses are fairly pre-
sented T find him often very noisy*
and one of these is the self-centred-
ness of the poems 'Wherever his
imagination takes him he sees nothing

23 The Poetry of Dylan Thomas, by Elder
Olson. Univ. of Chicago Press and C.U.P.
pp.vii+164. $3.25. 25s.

222

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

but himself. However, Olson has per-
suaded the reader that there are ele-
ments of greatness in Thomas, whom
he would never label as 'the least in-
tellectual of poets', for his poems
always display 'intense intellectual
organization'. Aware of the limita-
tions of a contemporary's judgement
of a poet, he concludes: 'Whatever the
fate of his reputation, this much we
who have the first word may say: that
he seemed to us one of the great artists
of our time, and that, in his struggle
from darkness to light, he uncovered
darkness in us that we should other-
wise not have known, and brought us
to a light we should not otherwise
have seen.' Prose paraphrases of cer-
tain poems are appended, and a bib-
liography has been compiled by Wil-
liam H. Huff.

R. N. Maud in Dylan Thomas's
Poetry (Ess Crif) is concerned with the
craftsmanship, with the rhetoric, and
metrical devices 'rhythmical stresses
falling where they would be heard in
speech'; also with the deliberate dis-
tortions of syntax and word-order em-
ployed to gain the desired emphases,
and with the prevailing attention to
form and effects. In discussing the dic-
tion, Maud points out that unfamiliar
words are seldom used, but that they
become 'tantalizingly unfamiliar'
when 'pressed by the poet into strange
image-combinations'. Again the ob-
scurity is seen to lie in the compressed,
short-cut use of symbol and imagery,
which carries suggestions beyond
the reach of the ordinary imagina-
tion.

Roger Asselineau in Dylan Thomas
(Stud ang) achieves by a simplicity
and directness of approach a convinc-
ing estimate of the poet which forms
a valuable introduction to his work.
He is contrasted with other poets of
the thirties in manner and matter; at-
tention is drawn to the violence of his
inspiration, to his apocalyptic vision,

his essential qualities of vigour, inten-
sity and arrogance; to the shock and
brutality of his openings. Asselineau
finds the poet 'imprisoned at the
centre of his own universe', singing of
himself, and not only of himself but
for himself (as Olson also points out),
writing not for a reader, but *to see
more deeply into his own being'. And
yet, it is emphasized, he is no surreal-
ist, losing himself in 'dreams and
nostalgia'; he brings his dreams to
light even, one feels, shouting them
to the world in a kind of protest against
their intensity and under the pressure
of necessity to define. For all his pre-
occupation with death and the passing
of time, Thomas is seen to have fully
accepted life.

Studies in poetry may be brought to
a fitting, though not joyful, conclusion
by J. W. Saunders's Poetry in the
Managerial Age (Ess Crit). Fortified
by impressive arrays of sobering sta-
tistics, the writer paints a picture of
the present-day economics of poetry
which reveals all the philistinism, pre-
judice, and paradox of this, the 'age
of the common man, when everything
depends upon the uncommon man*.
An initial examination is made of the
dwindling audiences for poetry, of the
miserable sales it achieves impres-
sions of books of verse being no big-
ger now than they were in Elizabethan
times, despite the enormous increase
in population. This is set against the
enormous increase in the reading pub-
lic as reflected in the records of lend-
ing libraries, which public proves,
however, to interest itself for the most
part in technical works, and not in
literature. It is a comment on the age
that 'the majority of readers are pur-
suing some special course of study*.
The mass audience for the poet has
become a 'mirage'. Books sell well,
nevertheless, in national crises; which
is again, perhaps, a submerged com-
ment on the deadening effect of the

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

223

ennui of everyday life in modern civili-
zation. The poet today has to appeal
to a specialized audience. Grasping
statistics again, the writer finds that
the great majority of poets are 'mem-
bers of the profession of words'
'never has English poetry been so ex-
clusively the province of University
trained professionals of words';
'poetry is inevitably University poetry'.
Members of Parliament, subjected to
a questionnaire, confessed to a general
ignorance of and resentment towards
modern poetry, chiefly because of its
specialized style. This style is found
to be due to poets 'refusing to dilute
their poetry for the masses'. A rather
despairing remedy for this lamentable
state of affairs is suggested in the form
of training in the critical reading of
poetry, through such media as Extra-
Mural courses; a not wholly inspiring
or satisfying project, which smacks
something too much of the black-
board. One is tempted to misapply
Keats and to comment that 'if poetry
comes not as naturally as leaves to a
tree it had better not come at all'; and
tempted again to resign oneself with
Arnold to the fact that these are
'damned times'.

In many ways the drama does not
present any more cheerful picture. It
rightly engages only a very small pro-
portion of criticism. Barrie has attrac-
ted two enthusiasts. Cynthia Asquith, 24
who was Barrie's secretary for twenty
years, gives a close, affectionate per-
sonal impression of the man in his
later years, throwing some light on the
composition and reception of his
work.

Roger Lancelyn Green 25 gives,
whatever may be one's reactions to
Peter Pan, a fascinating and scholarly

24 Portrait of Barrie, by Cynthia Asquith.
Barrie. pp. viii+230. 15s.

25 Fifty Years of Peter Pan, by Roger
Lancelyn Green. Peter Davies. pp. xiv+
250. 2ls.

study of a theatre tradition, and pre-
sents a unique example of continuity
in production. He has traced with
praiseworthy exactitude the genesis,
sources, cuts, revisions, variants and
parallels, the painstaking adaptations
which Barrie made always with an
eye to stage business finally to arrive
at the definitive version, which is still
reproduced in its original details of
staging, and which still has applicants
queueing up every year for parts which
they have played for forty years and
more. A glance at the cast lists for the
first fifty years, as evidenced in the
Appendix, 'will show how strong the
sense of continuity has remained'; 'we
still go to Dion Boucicault's produc-
tion'. Green makes a bold stand in
defence of Barrie and claims that he
can in his own right and different
genre be judged alongside, and need
not give way to, Bernard Shaw. In this
book a former actor has written a
scholarly work, and has assembled
his material with an academic eye to
significances and essentials; he prints
much unpublished material, including
Barrie's scenario for a proposed silent
film of the play. And the whole is
warm with the glow of nostalgic affec-
tion felt by one who has himself
appeared as 'one of the pirates' an
affection which few plays have stirred
so continuously in their casts. And yet
one cannot resist the comment that
love is indeed blind, for in speaking
of that other 'children's play', An-
drocles and the Lion, Green describes
it as 'one of the weakest and silliest'
of Shaw's works, and concludes: 'Only
Shaw could have had the effrontery
to compare his clowning with the
immortal magic of Barrie's greatest
play.' The book is sprinkled with
attractive photographs, which reveal
interesting changes of fashion in Peters
and Hooks.

Despite such 'effrontery' Shaw con-
tinues to provoke (and to elude) ana-

224

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

lysis. Arthur Nethercot 26 surveys, ana-
lyses, and classifies the characters,
attempting to answer the oft-reiterated
question as to whether they were any-
thing more than 'mere mouthpieces'.
It is claimed that they flourish with a
vitality of their own within certain
classifications into which Shaw fitted
all human beings, those classifications
being Philistines, idealists, and real-
ists; with a further three categories for
the women the womanly woman, the
pursuing woman, and the motherly
woman. As for the Superman, Shaw
envisaged, but never succeeded in
creating him; perhaps he was baffled
by difficulties connected with the soul.

Nethercot explores further groundin
Bernard Shaw, Philosopher (PMLA),
challenging Frank Harris's view that
Shaw was no philosopher. He admits
that Shaw does not evaluate or ex-
amine thoroughly all the many philo-
sophers he quotes, but that he adapts
philosophy to suit his various roles,
which develop from that of artist-
philosopher to artist-prophet, and
finally to artist-biologist.

It is good to see a reprint of Una
Ellis-Fermor's study of the Irish Dra-
matic Movement 27 which remains a
standard work of reference, indispen-
sable to the student of Irish drama,
both for its historical data and for its
assessment of play wrights.The first edi-
tion is substantially reproduced, with
the addition of an extension to the last
chapter, which covers the work of
dramatists writing immediately before
the last war. The Movement is seen in
this last chapter to have sustained its
continuity, and there are signs that
'even this is not the final phase and
that a movement away from realism
and towards fantasy is setting in again

26 Men and Supermen : The Shavian Por-
trait Gallery, by Arthur Nethercot. Harvard
U.P. pp.x-j-321. $5.

27 The Irish Dramatic Movement, by Una
Ellis-Fermor. Methuen. pp. xv+241. ly.

in the Irish drama of the present day';
an encouraging prospect, suitably in
accord with the favourite symbol of
the backbone and inspiration of the
Movement, W. B. Yeats.

The greatest of the Irish dramatists
is given perceptive treatment by C.
Trividic in John Millington Synge
devant I' Opinion Irlandaise (Stud
ang), which examines the queer para-
dox that while no man had a greater
love of his land than Synge, no writer
was more vehemently decried by the
Irish public. Trividic finds that Synge,
being no literary absentee', such as
many of his compatriots became, gives
a true and firsthand portrait of a
nation which has suffered centuries of
oppression, that it is this psychology
of oppression which colours his plays,
and that he therefore portrays what is
abnormal in his country, such as the
perversion of moral values in The
Playboy. For such a people the law is
always the law of the enemy, and
therefore unworthy of respect. (Could
there be some comparison drawn here
with the literature of the French resis-
tance movement?) It is emphasized
that Synge, unlike O'Casey, was no
satirist, that he had no wish to reform
the Irish, but saw their very vices to be
a part of the richness of their nature.
This honest portrait of themselves as
themselves did not please the Irish,
who were on the verge of applying
their own reforms. They read into The
Playboy a political bias which Synge
did not intend, viewing the Irish as he
did, purely as an artist. The conclusion
is that 'for full appreciation by the
nation Synge will have to wait till Ire-
land is more sure of herself, for he has
made her faults too seductive'. In this,
of course, Synge was being unexpec-
tedly traditional, for in the accepted
English view the Irishman had long
been classified as a charming rogue.
The sole representative of contem-
porary English drama to receive atten-

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 225

tion is Christopher Fry, in Rudolf gery, and his revival of dead meta-

Stamm's Christopher Fry and the Re- phor (though Shaw pointed the way

volt against Realism in Modern Eng- to this device many years ago).

lish Drama (Anglia). He begins with Finally, Tom Fleming's Christmas

a brief sketch of the dichotomy be- play 28 deserves mention, as a sincere

tween poetry and realism, and shows attempt to represent modern civiliza-

how Fry comes as 'the reaper of Eliot's tion faced with the eternal Christian

sowing', bringing remoteness, the open mystery,
air, ecstasy, and the mystery of God

into the theatre. Not unnaturally Fry's ,,,,. , ,,.* . , A r

f , , . , ,/ , 2S Miracle at Midnight, A Play with

use of language claims most attention, Carols for Christmas, by Tom Fleming,

particularly his dramatic use of ima- Epworth Press, pp. 72. 6s.

B5641

XV. AMERICAN LITERATURE

By MARCUS CUNLIFFE

As usual 1954 saw the publication of
a formidable quantity of work on
American literature, the greater part
of it naturally the product of America's
own indefatigable scholars.

First, we should mention some items
of general interest. Thomas F. Mar-
shall provides a subject- and author-
index 1 to the first twenty volumes of
American Literature, that admirable
journal of 'literary history, criticism,
and bibliography' published by Duke
University in co-operation with the
American Literature Group of the
Modern Language Association. Lewis
Leary's compilation 2 is an extended
version of a bibliography published in
1947, which covered the period 1920-
45. It is a valuable survey of articles
on American literature written in Eng-
lish (plus a slightly random sample of
articles in other languages) that ap-
peared in periodicals between 1900
and the close of 1950. Book reviews of
the less ephemeral sort are included
within the term 'article'. Though three-
quarters of the space is devoted to in-
dividual authors, there are additional
subject-lists under such headings as
'Foreign Influences', 'Regionalism',
and Theater'. This is an indispensable
guide.

An even more impressive monument
to scholarship is provided by Jay B.
HubbelTs book 3 from the same univer-
sity, Duke, which has done so much

1 Analytical Index to 'American Litera-
ture* > 1929-1949, comp. by Thomas F. Mar-
shall. Duke U.P. and C.U.P. pp. vii+154.
$5. 405.

2 Articles on American Literature, 1900-
1950, comp. by Lewis Leary. Duke U.P.
and C.U.P. pp. xvH-437. $7.50. 56s. 6d.

3 The South in American Literature,
1607-1900, by Jay B. Hubbell. Duke U.P.
and C.U.P. pp. xix+987. $10. 755.

thanks in considerable measure to
Hubbell himself to establish Ameri-
can literature as a serious academic
study. Duke University has in the pro-
cess striven to defend and rehabilitate
Southern writing, which many South-
erners feel has been unjustly over-
looked by a plethora of literary his-
torians and critics from New England.
In his long, compendious survey Hub-
bell, who discusses writing about the
South as well as writing by Souther-
ners, makes no attempt to hide his
regional sympathies. He has some
sharp things to say, for instance, on
the Northern bias of Emerson, J. R.
Lowell, and Harriet Beecher Stowe.
But though he reveals a certain sec-
tional asperity, there is nothing rabid
in his approach. Hubbell readily ad-
mits that of all the scores of nine-
teenth-century Southerners whose lives
and works he summarizes only two
Edgar Allan Poe and Mark Twain
can be called great. However, by sheer
weight of evidence, learnedly and de-
votedly marshalled, he shows that the
South before 1900 was less of a liter-
ary wasteland than we have tended to
assume. His book concludes with a
valuable critical bibliography.

Some of Hubbell's strictures against
New England are echoed by Chard
Powers Smith, 4 in his lively and po-
lemical interpretation of New England
culture and its effect traced from the
seventeenth century to the present day
upon America as a whole. Yet it is
only the 'debased' Puritan spirit of the
last hundred years or so that Smith
deplores. In the main he is convinced
that the best in American civilization

4 Yankees and God, by Chard Powers
Smith. New York : Hermitage House, pp.
528. $6.50.

AMERICAN LITERATURE

227

derives from Puritanism. He is accord-
ingly hostile to the South. Another
view of New England is provided by
a collaborative volume on the Har-
vard Divinity School 5 from its tenta-
tive beginnings in 1811 up to 1953. It
is quite properly a work of local piety;
but the student of literature will gather
from it something of the institutional
spirit of Harvard, and glimpse (though
all too briefly) such rebels as Emerson
and Theodore Parker, from the un-
familiar vantage-point of orthodox
Unitarianism. And, finally, we must
mention a brave but unsuccessful at-
tempt, by the late Morris R. Cohen, 6
to sum up the whole sweep of Ameri-
can intellectual development. He died
before completing the task. Indeed, it
could perhaps never have been com-
pleted, even by a philosopher as bril-
liant and omnivorous as Cohen, espe-
cially since he sought to give an im-
pression of contemporary thought in
addition to its intellectual genealogies.
The result, inevitably, is a book of
shreds and patches, some splendid (as
when Cohen covers philosophy and
legal thought), some threadbare (as
when he tackles American history and
aesthetics). Taken in conjunction with
these other general works, it is a re-
minder of the energy and diligence of
American scholarship; and, too, of
the ways in which American literary
scholarship often concerns itself with
what to the European may seem non-
literary matters: theology, regional
differences and antagonisms, colonial-

5 The Harvard Divinity School: Its
Place in Harvard University and in Ameri-
can Culture, by Conrad Wright, Sydney
E. Ahlstrom, Levering Reynolds, Jr., Ralph
Lazzaro, Willard L. Sperry, and George
Huntston Williams, ed. by George Hunts-
ton Williams. Boston: Beacon Press, pp.
xvi+366. $5.

6 American Thought: A Critical Sketch,
by Morris R. Cohen, ed. and with a Fore-
word by Felix S. Cohen. Glencoe, Illinois.
The Free Press, pp. 360. $5.

ism in culture, the problem of national
identity and so on.

By contrast, English contributions
of a general nature to American litera-
ture seem less considerable, both quan-
titatively and in degree of 'engage-
ment'. Two should be noted for 1954:
the 100-page special number of the
TLS (17 Sept.), American Writing
Today, and Marcus Cunliffe's Pelican
survey. 7 The TLS issue consists of a
large number of articles, ranging in
quality from excellent to mediocre, and
in subject from the New Criticism to
the comic strip. Over thirty previous
TLS reviews of important American
books are also reprinted. The total
effect is somewhat miscellaneous, and
a trifle repetitive. Still, the issue hardly
deserves to be dismissed, as it has been
by one American critic, as a collection
of 'thin journalistic maunderings'.

American colonial literature has one
of its finest scholars in Perry Miller.
This year has seen the welcome reissue
of his book on the intellectual bases of
seventeenth-century New England, 8
while 1953 marked the publication of a
most impressively erudite companion-
volume. 9 In the latter he reviews the
struggle of Puritanism, from about
1650 to 1730, to maintain its narrow
covenanting ideal in face of the expan-
sive secularism of the New World.
With an abundance of illustration,
Miller demonstrates how the New
England leaders saw their theocracy
weaken through very success, and how
they attempted to scold their followers
into piety by means of such 'jeremiads'
as Cotton Mather's Magnolia Christ!

7 The Literature of the United States, by
Marcus Cunliffe. Penguin Books, pp. 384.
3s. 6d.

8 The New England Mind: The Seven-
teenth Century, by Perry Miller. Harvard
U.P. and O.U.P. pp. xi+528. $6.50. 52s.

9 The New England Mind: From Colony
to Province, by Perry Miller. Harvard U.P.
(1953) and O.U.P. (1954). pp. xiv+513.
$6.50. 525.

228

AMERICAN LITERATURE

Americana. Miller's book, which has
every desirable quality except literary
grace, reinforces the impression that
Cotton and his father Increase Mather
are central figures in early American
intellectual history. Cotton Mather is
the subject of a well- written, rather
ironical vignette by Katherine Anne
Porter, A Bright Particular Faith:
A.D. 1700 (in Perspectives 7), which
describes the conflicting emotions
of Mather during the illness of his
young wife Abigail. The scene of his
wife's deathbed becomes 'a battlefield
where Mather fought another of his
distinguished engagements with
God'.

Turning to the nineteenth century,
we find ample evidence of the con-
tinued revival of interest in James
Fenimore Cooper. There is very hand-
some evidence in the shape of Allan
Nevins's abridgement of the Leather-
stocking novels. 10 The edition is beau-
tifully printed, and embellished with
fluent drawings by Reginald Marsh.
Nevins brings together The Deer-
slayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The
Pathfinder, The Pioneers, and The
Prairie, so as to furnish a more or less
continuous narrative, focusing upon
Leatherstockirig (Natty Bumppo) as
the main actor in the drama and omit-
ting whatever parts of the novels seem
to him peripheral. This cutting has
been sensibly though drastically car-
ried out, and the editor gives a sum-
mary of each omission. He provides a
useful introductory essay, and a good
bibliography (though the biography
of Cooper by James Grossman might
have been included). In short, an
admirable anthology of one side of
Cooper's work. Other and more com-
plicated aspects are explored by
Marius Bewley in Fenimore Cooper

10 The Leatherstocking Saga, by James
Fenimore Cooper, ed. by Allan Nevins.
New York: Pantheon, and London: Col-
lins (1955). pp. x+833. $7.50. 35s.

and the Economic Age (American
Literature). Bewley holds that Cooper
is one of America's best nineteenth-
century novelists, worthy of compari-
son with Hawthorne and Henry James;
and that, as with these others, in
'much of Cooper's writing there is a
fundamental . . . tension that grows
out of his sense of American society
and history'. This article discusses
Cooper's three 'European' novels (The
Bravo, The Heidenmauer, and The
Headsman), in the belief that though
not masterpieces they are neverthe-
less a striking statement of Cooper's
democratic principles. A democrat in
Europe, a conservative at home: this
is Cooper's fate. No less than twelve
different views of him are presented in
a special commemorative issue of New
York History. Among these are cap-
able essays by William Thorp on
Cooper's reputation outside America;
by Robert E. Spiller on Cooper as a
social critic; by William Charvat on
Cooper as a professional writer; and
by James Grossman on Cooper's
rather embittered relations with the
American press. There are also articles
on Cooper as a landowner and as a
naval historian, and on his historically
inaccurate presentation of American
Indians.

No major work on Poe has appeared
in 1954. Writing in Nineteenth-Century
Fiction, on Poe's Two-edged Satiric
Tale, William Whipple examines The
System of Dr. Tan and Prof. Fether
(1845). This is a satirical story about
a French lunatic asylum, whose in-
mates lock up their keepers, and con-
vince a gullible traveller that they
themselves are the authorities. In part,
Whipple points out, Poe is poking fun
at the then popular theory of the
'soothing system' in asylum manage-
ment. But he is also, Whipple con-
vincingly suggests, delivering a veiled
attack upon Charles Dickens, who in
his American Notes wrote a sympa-

AMERICAN LITERATURE

229

thetic account of a visit to an asylum
in Boston where the 'soothing system'
was in operation. A subsequent letter
in the same periodical, by Ada B. Nis-
bet, offers further evidence in support
of Whipple's suggestion. There is
something a little sad in this interest-
ing minor revelation. For the tale in
question is not up to much; and if
Poe did intend to assail Dickens, then
this would seem to suggest that he was
altogether too stealthy, if he had to
wait over a century for someone to
spot the connexion.

The major New England writers
have all received respectful scrutiny,
and one or two lesser figures have
been brought into the limelight. Work
on Ralph Waldo Emerson and the
Transcendentalists includes a lucid
little book by Charles R. Metzger. 11
In linking the aesthetic views of Emer-
son with those of his sculptor friend
Horatio Greenough, Metzger follows
up an idea first developed in F. O.
Matthiessen's American Renaissance
(1941). He shows how Emerson arrived
at the notion of beauty as an expres-
sion of organic function; how he and
Greenough agreed that current defini-
tions of beauty were narrow and arti-
ficial; how Emerson's arguments suf-
fer from his habit of expanding his
terms until they all tend to become
vaguely synonymous with God, or
Nature; but how he and Greenough,
in relation to literature and architec-
ture respectively, outlined theories
that have had much relevance for
those who came after. Metzger's jux-
taposition of the two men and their
ideas is a little too neat to be true, and
he might with advantage have brought
in rather more of Emerson's writings.
Still, given the brevity of his book he
has performed a useful service. In an-

11 Emerson and Greenough: Transcen-
dental Pioneers of an American Esthetic,
by Charles R. Metzger. Univ. of California
Press and C.U.P. pp. 153. $3. 22s. 6d.

other small book 12 J. Russell Reaver
examines Emersons' creative proces-
ses, chiefly in the latter's poetry, in the
light of what Freud and Jung have
said about the subconscious or un-
conscious mind. He sets out at a
leisurely pace, goes through Emerson
at an uncomfortably rapid trot, and
winds up with the somewhat breath-
less conclusion that Emerson's theories
are superior as well as antecedent to
those of modern psychologists. That
may be so; but Reaver has not made
his case. Against one's better nature
one recalls the saying that ideas are
not responsible for those who embrace
them.

This year was the centennial of the
publication of Henry David Thoreau's
Walden. Two books have met the oc-
casion. William Condry, 13 an English-
man, offers an agreeable brief bio-
graphy that can be recommended as an
elementary introduction to Thoreau.
Since Condry writes as a naturalist,
though, and since he states that the
'enduring core' of Thoreau is 'the
naturalist in him', it is a pity that we
learn nothing new of Thoreau in this
direction. The other book 14 is an ad-
mirably varied collection of reviews
and articles. The first contribution,
chronologically, is a contemporary re-
view of Thoreau's Week on the Con-
cord and Merrimack Rivers (1849),
from the New York Tribune. The last
is an article (1951) on Thoreau as an
ecologist and conservationist. In be-
tween, along with the well-known
tributes or reprimands of Emerson,
Lowell, and R. L. Stevenson, there are

12 Emerson as Mythmaker, by J. Russell
Reaver. Univ. of Florida Press, pp. x+106.
$2. (paper covers).

13 Thoreau, by William Condry. Great
Naturalists Series, ed. by R. M. Lockley.
London: Witherby. New York: Philoso-
phical Library, pp. 114. $3.50. 9s. 6d.

14 Thoreau: A Century of Criticism, ed.
by Walter Harding. Southern Methodist
U.P. pp. x+205. $3.75.

230

AMERICAN LITERATURE

several that are less familiar but no
less fascinating (including a half-way
'recantation' by Stevenson). There are
some crisp anonymous reviews, a fine
essay by Paul Elmer More, a know-
ledgeable study of Maine Woods by
Fannie Eckstorm (a native of Maine),
a good discussion of Thoreau's poetry
by Henry W. Wells, and an intelligent
if slightly tortuous analysis by Stanley
Edgar Hyman (1946) of Thoreau's
place 'in the great stream of the
American tradition, the mythic and
non-realist writers, Hawthorne and
Melville, Mark Twain and Henry
James, . . . Hemingway and Faulkner'.
A good many American critics feel
that there is some such stream, yet
not many would at present consider
Thoreau as part of it, still less Emer-
son. Much more study is being devoted
to the 'Puritan' rather than the 'Tran-
scendental' element in American litera-
ture: to authors, that is, who are con-
cerned with evil, guilt, original sin,
and the like, and with the 'symbols'
used to express these. B. Bernard
Cohen, in Emerson's 'The Young
American' and Hawthorne's "The In-
telligence Office' (American jLitera-
ture\ seeks to prove that the two men
were in close sympathy, at any rate
during the period 1842-4, when both
were living in Concord. It is a mark of
the new climate that he should be
compelled to stress what to a previous
generation of literary historians was
a quite obvious link. It is true that not
all work on Hawthorne plunges into
the soul's recesses. Chester E. Eisinger,
for example, writing on Hawthorne as
Champion of the Middle Way (New
England Quarterly), concedes that
Hawthorne 'accepted the tragic view
of life', and that like many other wri-
ters he is more effective when dealing
with failure and despair than with
success and affirmation. Yet, he argues,
Hawthorne stands somewhere between
hedonism and Puritanism in his 'level-

headed recognition of the mixed qua-
lity of life', and emerges 'as an advo-
cate of moderation, even of pedestrian-
ism'. And in his account (New England
Quarterly) of The Writing of 'The
Scarlet Letter 9 , Hubert H. Hoeltje
places Hawthorne squarely among the
political squabbles of his native Salem.
Hoeltje explains Hawthorne's dismis-
sal from his post as Surveyor of the
Salem Custom House as an unedif ying
local intrigue, in which Hawthorne
took no direct part, but which resulted
in a great deal of publicity as Haw-
thorne's friends took up the cudgels.
This publicity, it is suggested, was by
a happy irony largely responsible for
the gratifying sales of The Scarlet
Letter when it was published a few
months afterwards. However, a per-
haps more characteristic example of
current Hawthorne study is provided
by Roy Harvey Pearce's article (ELH)
on Hawthorne and the Sense of the
Past: or, the Immortality of Major
Molineux. As its title may indicate,
this is an ambitious analysis of what
Pearce regards as the significant
themes in Hawthorne, The first, which
he views as a neglected minor theme,
is 'the imputation simultaneously of
guilt and righteousness through his-
tory', which constitutes (in the Jame-
sian phrase) Hawthorne's 'sense of
the past'. The second, Hawthorne's
major theme, taken up in his middle
years, is 'the discovery and acceptance
of guilt (and righteousness too) in the
present'. The first, developed with par-
ticular reference to My Kinsman,
Major Molineux, is conceived of as
the 'Molineux theme', to which the
second is a 'counter-theme'. This no-
tion seems respectable enough. But
the stages by which Pearce arrives at
his thesis are less acceptable. He starts
with the fact that there was an actual,
historical Molineux in pre-Revolu-
tionary Boston who was a fanatical
patriot, not as in the story a Loyal-

AMERICAN LITERATURE

231

1st. This is supposed to indicate the
subtle, double intent of Hawthorne.
Pearce may be right; yet the present
writer, caught in his wash, cannot
keep up with him. Falling behind, he
turns to the meticulous scholarship of
Edward H. Davidson. 15 Doctor Grim-
shawe's Secret existed at Hawthorne's
death merely as a mass of manuscript,
embodying half a dozen short pre-
liminary sketches and two long drafts,
the second of these a 'thorough re-
working and expansion of about half
the narrative of the first version'. He
abandoned the novel in 1861, and
enjoined his heirs to burn all his
unfinished manuscripts. They disre-
garded the instructions, publishing this
and two other posthumous novels ac-
cording to their own arbitrary editorial
notions. Portions of the manuscripts
were sold to collectors. It is a sorry
tale; and Davidson frankly recognizes
that To present to the world an artist's
clumsy, fumbling efforts', as he has
done by reassembling and publishing
the various manuscripts, is 'a viola-
tion'. Yet no one will blame him,
though if they have read his earlier
volume, Hawthorne's Last Phase
(1949), they will know how painfully
Hawthorne reveals his uncertainty, as
he pauses in the narration to harangue
himself almost as in a private diary.
In Davidson's careful edition we see
how Hawthorne became the victim of
his own symbols. Bloody footprints,
giant spiders, coffins full of golden
hair: these are the symbols that he
tries in vain to use in a novel whose
purpose is to juxtapose the Old World
and the New. Why in vain, though?
Davidson suggests that by about 1860
Hawthorne had 'exhausted himself of
his limited budget of subjects', and
moreover 'may well have reached the

15 Hawthorne's 'Doctor Grimshawe's
Secret', ed. with an Introduction and notes
by Edward H. Davidson. Harvard U.P.
and O.UJP. pp. vii+305. $5. 40j.

end of everything he had to say con-
cerning the moral nature of man'.

Among other New Englanders, Har-
riet Beecher Stowe and Francis Park-
man are the subject of sympathetic
studies. 16 The renewal of interest in
Mrs. Stowe is in part attributable to
Edmund Wilson, who in the New
Yorker has published some brilliant
revaluations of Mrs. Stowe and some
of her little-known contemporaries. It
is also accountable in terms of the
general interest in Puritanism. Thus
in his absorbing book Charles H. Fos-
ter presents her as being unlike Haw-
thorne 'precisely rather than loosely
Puritan. Her whole life was a struggle
with the premises Jonathan Edwards
established. . . . Original sin, predes-
tination, freedom of the will, the
burning necessity for a sincere con-
version, grace, heaven, and hell: these
were her primary points of reference
as she carried out "symbolic action"
in writing her novels.' Now and then
one feels that Foster strains proba-
bility in his determination to account
for everything that Mrs. Stowe does
and says as a logical outcome of Ed-
wardian Calvinism. But this is only a
minor fault. Harriet Beecher Stowe is
an extremely interesting figure, whose
New England novels (The Minister's
Wooing, Oldtown Folks, and others)
have been overshadowed by the spec-
tacular prominence of Uncle Tom's
Cabin. Foster's book shows that these
works deserve serious reconsideration,
though we are not likely to decide that
any is a masterpiece. As for Francis
Parkman, Otis A. Pease 16 advances no
particular thesis except that Parkman
is a first-rate historian. Explaining

16 The Rungless Ladder: Harriet Beecher
Stowe and New England Puritanism, by
Charles H. Foster. Duke U.P. and C.U.P.
pp. xviii+278. $4.50. 34s.

Parkman' s History: The Historian as
Literary Artist, by Otis A. Pease. Wallace*
Notestein Essays, vol. i. Yale U.P. (1953)
and O.U.P. pp. xi+86. $3. 24s.

232

AMERICAN LITERATURE

why Parkman's writing 'has endured
longer than that of his contemporaries
among historians'., Pease takes note
of Parkman's passionate interest in
active experience. Adventurous as a
youth, Parkman became an invalid
who managed in his histories to relive
or to imagine the sensations of bygone
explorers and soldiers in the Ameri-
can forest wilderness. To this imagina-
tive faculty must be added Parkman's
wide use of source-material, and his
success in developing a narrative prose-
style that is admirably direct and re-
sourceful. In his clear little book Pease
communicates to the reader something
of the enthusiasm that he has evidently
felt for Parkman's superb series.

At least a dozen books on Melville
have appeared within the last few
years. Perhaps it is a sign of dimin-
ished critical interest that none was
published during 1954. However, men-
tion should be made of a fascinating
compilation by his granddaughter,
Eleanor Melville Metcalf, 17 that came
out in 1953. It consists of letters,
diary excerpts, &c. s by, to, and about
Melville, interspersed with a sort of
running commentary by the editor.
Most of the material has already been
printed elsewhere, but never in such
convenient form; and the new mate-
rial includes an excited letter from
Hawthorne's wife to her mother, in
praise of their new friend Melville.
What this book does is to put Mel-
ville into his family circle. Through
their eyes, he is a baffling figure, irri-
table, excitable, and unreliable.

If there have been no full-length
studies of Melville during 1954, there
are a considerable number of articles
that deserve mention. In NCF Joseph
J. Firebaugh writes on Humorist as
Rebel: the Melville of 'Typee'. This

17 Herman Melville: Cycle and Epi-
cycle, by Eleanor Melville Metcalf. Har-
vard U.P. (1953) and O.U.P. pp. xvii-f
311. $5.50. 455.

article may have some value as a
counterbalance to the symbol hunters
who see little but torment and tension
in Melville. But in extolling the breezy,
polysyllabic humour of Melville's
early work it neglects to point out how
many other authors of the time, popu-
lar and would-be popular, wrote in
this sort of vein. The Two Moby-
Dicks, by George R. Stewart (Ameri-
can Literature), is an ingenious and
important essay. A number of critics
have speculated on the unevenness of
Moby-Dick, and have gone on to sug-
gest the likelihood that it was exten-
sively revised. In his detailed examina-
tion of the novel, Stewart attempts to
be more specific. His opinion is that
of the book as we now know it, the
first fifteen chapters represent (with a
few additions) Melville's original ver-
sion; that the next seven chapters are
'transitional'; and that the remainder
of Moby-Dick sees the working out
of a far more lofty and elaborate plan.
Stewart concedes that this framework
rests almost entirely upon internal
evidence: the external evidence tells
us little more than that Melville took
what was for him an unusually long
time to write the book, and wore him-
self out in the process. Still, whether
or not one agrees with the minor de-
tails of Stewart's thesis, his main argu-
ment seems brilliantly convincing. He
picks out for special emphasis a para-
graph in Chapter XVI which 'brings
in for the first time almost all the ideas
which are seen in the character of
Ahab later in the story. . . . Melville
here seems suddenly to take fire, to see
his way toward the device of poetic
language, to catch the conception of a
great tragic character, to see a kind of
tragic flaw that at the same time can
exist in that character and produce
the tragedy.' No serious student of
Melville should overlook Stewart's
article. The same issue of American
Literature contains three other con-

AMERICAN LITERATURE

233

tributions on Moby-Dick. In these,
James Dean Young examines The
Nine Gams of the 'Pequod' so as to
show how each of these 'gams' (meet-
ings at sea with other ships) forms 'a
focal point in the action'; Don Geiger,
in Melville's Black God: Contrary
Evidence in 'The Town-Ho's Story',
discusses Chapter LIV of Mo by -Dick
as an example of Melville's so-called
'quarrel with God'; and William H.
Hutchinson (A Definitive Edition of
'Moby-Dick') decides that, despite a
certain number of small errors, the
1952 edition of Moby-Dick published
in New York by Hendricks House is
worthy to stand as the edition. An-
other insight into this novel is pro-
vided by Frederick S. Rockwell (NCF).
Writing on De Quincey and the End-
ing of ' Moby-Dick', he notes that Mel-
ville read and greatly admired De
Quincey's Opium Eater, and, subse-
quently, it would seem, the latter's
Mail-Coach essays. He maintains that
the hectic dream-mood of these essays
has its counterpart in Moby-Dick,
which Melville was writing in 1850,
and that particular episodes recall the
closing paragraphs of Moby-Dick.
One wonders whether a study of the
stage-coach scenes in Melville's next
novel, Pierre, might also hint at a
connexion with De Quincey. Finally,
Walter E. Bezanson's article (ELH)
on Melville's 'Clarel': the Complex
Passion gives a clear outline of the
plan and themes of that strange poem.
On Walt Whitman, the chief contri-
bution of the year is a massive work
by Roger Asselineau. 18 Beginning with
the publication of Leaves of Grass in
1855, Asselineau devotes the first half
of his book to what he calls la crea-
tion d'une personnalite': in other
words, to a consideration of Whit-

18 L' Evolution de Walt Whitman apres
la premiere Edition des Feuilles d'Herbe,
by Roger Asselineau. Paris: Didier. pp.
567. Fr. 2,000.

man's life in relation to his literary
endeavours. In the second half Assel-
ineau discusses la creation d'une
oeuvre': namely, Whitman's inner life,
and the development of his views (on
sex, death, democracy, and so on) as
well as of his techniques. This divided
treatment, though an orthodox one in
French literary scholarship, seems un-
fortunate: it is clumsy and involves a
certain amount of repetition. How-
ever, in almost every other respect
Asselineau's book is excellent. It is
thorough, admirably documented,
pleasingly written, and full of acute
judgements. Whitman emerges as a
lonely, disappointed, upright man, well
aware that his former high hopes had
not been realized, anguished by the
problem of his homosexuality, failing
(unlike, say, Goethe) to extend his
powers as he grew older, yet achieving
an extraordinary serenity through the
medium of his art. There is nothing
startling in this synthesis. But if there
were, one might have less confidence
in the Tightness of Asselineau's esti-
mate. Other work on Whitman in-
cludes a note on Walt Whitman and
the Locomotive by G. Ferris Cronk-
hite (American Quarterly), and an in-
telligent analysis by Georgiana Pollak
(College English) of The Relationship
of Music to 'Leaves of Grass'. She
contends that this relationship lies in
the resemblance of Whitman's rhythm
to the semi-musical rhythm of recita-
tive rather than to the even-measured
rhythm of pure music. The connex-
ion of Whitman's rhythm with this
music should be accepted; otherwise
the entire individuality of his poetic
style will be irrevocably lost. On the
other hand, the musical character of
his rhythm represents no mysteriously
wrought poetic emulation of musical
compositions.'

On Mark Twain we are again in-
debted to Roger Asselineau. 19 Three-

19 The Literary Reputation of Mark Twain

234

AMERICAN LITERATURE

quarters of his book is given over to a
very useful critical bibliography, ar-
ranged chronologically from 1870 to
1952 but fullest after 1910 (the year
of Twain's death). The items are num-
bered in sequence; there are 1,333 of
them, and they embrace Europe as
well as America. In the other part of
his book, however, Asselineau con-
fines himself to a description of
Twain's reputation in the United
States, for the reason that no Euro-
pean scholar has yet published a full-
length study of Twain. Since 1910,
Twain has passed from the hands of
the hagiographers into those of the
critics, after some rough handling by
the debunkers and psycho-analysts of
the twenties. . . . 1950 was a decisive
year . . . since within a few months
T. S. Eliot rendered homage to
Huckleberry Finn and a distinguished
academic critic [Lionel Trilling] offi-
cially dubbed Mark Twain "a literary
artist".' A more sprightly and readable
approach to Twain is provided by
Jerry Allen. 20 She has taken from
Twain's writings (including his cor-
respondence) whatever could be re-
garded as autobiographical, whether
in fictional form or not. Sometimes
paraphrasing this material, and some-
times quoting it directly, she produces
an account of a curious composite
figure, half real, half mythical. The
trouble with her method is that Twain's
quasi-autobiographical writing, while
often delightful, simply cannot be used
as a reliable guide to his life. Still, if
one reads The Adventures of Mark
Twain as a novel rather than as a bio-
graphy (certainly for the first half of
the book), then it has an undeniable
attraction. Indeed, it is so attractive

from 1910 to 1950: a critical essay and a
bibliography, by Roger Asselineau. Paris:
Didier. pp.241.

20 The Adventures of Mark Twain, by
Jerry Allen. Boston: Little, Brown; and
London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. xii+
359. $4.50. 185.

that a pedagogue cannot help thinking
of it as a type of poisoned fruit that
may ensnare his hapless students. No
such insidious threat is concealed in
Edgar H. Goold's Mark Twain on the
Writing of Fiction (American Litera-
ture), a rather humdrum recapitula-
tion of Twain's belief in the impor-
tance for the novelist of experience
and verisimilitude; nor in Alexander
Jones's Mark Twain and Freemasonry
(American Literature) which with un-
derstandable diffidence hints that
Twain's Masonic interests may have
influenced what he wrote about reli-
gious belief; nor in Arthur L. Vogel-
back's Mark Twain and the Fight for
Control of the 'Tribune', which re-
prints a facetious poem by Twain on
the various candidates for the editor-
ship of the New York Tribune in 1 873.
Another brand of Twain scholarship
is represented in Remarks on the Sad
Initiation of Huckleberry Finn, an
article by James M. Cox (Sewanee
Review). Unlike some recent critics,
Cox agrees with T. S. Eliot and Lionel
Trilling that, with the reappearance
of Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn
ends with 'inexorable and crushing
logic'. He sees the novel as a 'con-
scious continuation and extension of
Tom Sawyer, though at a more pro-
found level'. Its themes are death and
rebirth. In staging his own 'death',
Huck remains dead until he is 'reborn'
as Tom Sawyer, and then finally re-
gains his own identity. This is a
modish article, yet it contains some
original ideas.

There is no slackening in the output
of work on Henry James, by critics
or literary historians. The critics have
been particularly resourceful; and of
the three phases of James that have
been labelled James I, James II, and
James the Old Pretender, the last of
these naturally enough proves the
most fruitful. There is only space here
for brief mention of a few out of many

AMERICAN LITERATURE

235

articles. In South Atlantic Quarterly
Maurice Beebe on The Turned Back
of Henry James argues that the isola-
tion of James was not so much an in-
dividual inadequacy, caused by some
inner weakness, as rather an example
of the successful detachment neces-
sary to every major artist. Dorothea
Krook's three sensitive articles (Cam-
bridge Journal) examine first the
general Method of the Later Works
of Henry James, then concentrate in
turn upon The Wings of the Dove (to
show how he evokes a flashy magnifi-
cence in order to heighten the pure
quality of his heroine) and upon The
Golden Bowl (as a tragic drama of
'sin, expiation and redemption'). Some
similar points are made by Ernest San-
deen (PMLA) in 'The Wings of the
Dove' and 'The Portrait of a Lady':
a Study of Henry James's Later Phase.
In Morals and Motives in 'The Spoils
of Poynton' Patrick F. Quinn (Sewanee
Review) insists that whereas James
intended his heroine to be heroically
high-minded she strikes the reader as
irritatingly high-handed. Finally, two
textual notes: An American in Paris,
bylsadore Traschen (American Litera-
ture), demonstrates how in revising The
American James sought to emphasize
and elaborate on the innocence of
the hero, Christopher Newman; and
Henry James's Revisions for 'The
Ambassadors', by S. M. Humphreys
(NQ), comments on how the original
magazine version gained several addi-
tions in book form. James's friend
W. D. Howells, who sank into com-
parative neglect after his death in
1920, has now come back into some
prominence and is the subject of a
very satisfactory study by Everett
Carter. 21 After a short biographical in-
troduction, Carter deals with Howells's
literary career from its origins to the

21 Howells and the Age of Realism, by
Everett Carter. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
pp. 307. $5.

early 1890s, paying special attention
to A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890),
which he considers Howells's finest
novel and the climax of Howells's
career. Earlier chapters examine the
attack on sentimental fiction launched
by Howells, Twain, and others; then
the book discusses the emergence of
the Howellsian brand of realism, as
something shared with the early Twain.
In the closing sections Carter indicates
the limits of Howells's influence over
other authors, and the limitations of
his vision. Howells and his associates
were, we are told, 'essentially comic
writers whose satire was based firmly
upon . . . their . . . allegiance to the
American culture in which they found
themselves'. In this he differs, of
course, both from the majority of his
American successors and (in another
direction) from his great contempor-
ary Henry James. Carter's thesis
seems thoroughly sound. He resists
the temptation to overvalue Howells,
placing him in his times and seeing
him in perspective. This book is the
fullest study so far written on Howells;
it is also a useful addition to the rela-
tively few general works that survey
American literature after the Civil
War.

Following Carter's book it is logical
to list one by Maxwell Geismar, 22 the
third in his projected five-volume his-
tory of the American novel. In this
volume Geismar concentrates upon
five writers Frank Norris, Stephen
Crane, Jack London, Ellen Glasgow,
and Theodore Dreiser. He treats them
as 'ancestors' of such modern novelists
as Hemingway and Faulkner, and as
'rebels' against their time. Geismar has
many virtues as a critic. He knows his
subject thoroughly, yet has no tinge

22 Rebels and Ancestors: The American
Novel 1890-1915, by Maxwell Geismar.
Boston (1953);: Houghton Miffiin; and
London : W. H. Allen, pp. xii+435. $4.50.
25s.

236

AMERICAN LITERATURE

of academic f ussiness. He is fertile in
ideas; he makes some acute observa-
tions, for example, on Crane's reli-
gious background, and on the febrile,
neurotic fervours of Norris and Lon-
don. The chief defect of the book,
apart from its too-casual prose style,
is that it does not quite offer what its
title implies. The five studies remain
a little distant from one another. Four
of them are joined by parallel elements
in their subjects' work; but the fifth,
on Ellen Glasgow, remains somewhat
isolated. The 'rebellion' of each author
is treated almost as a psycho-analytical
case history; and though Geismar is
too shrewd to be led wildly astray by
his method, he does tend now and then
to confuse the classification of neu-
roses with the evaluation of literary
merit. These faults, however, are not
grave ones; Geismar says a great deal
that is fresh and relevant. Some of the
same ground is covered by Grant C.
Knight, 23 in a work that forms a se-
quel to Knight's The Critical Period
in American Literature* 1890-1900
(1951). As in his previous study, he
reveals a remarkably wide knowledge
of his period. What Geismar treats
intensively he displays extensively,
ranging from The Trail of the Lone-
some Pine to Ida Tarbell's History of
the Standard Oil Company. He is also
most dexterous in organizing such
disparate material around a central
theme. In this case the word 'strenu-
ous' provides his text. He has in mind
especially such figures as Theodore
Roosevelt and Jack London, though
he brings the 'muckraking' journalists
and novelists within his scheme of
things. Henry James stands out in the
narrative as a rather lonely island amid
so much bustle. This is a good book to
read in conjunction with Geismar. It

23 The Strenuous Age in American Litera-
ture, 2900-1910, by Grant C. Knight. Univ.
of N. Carolina Press and O.U.P. pp. ix+
270. $4.50. 36 5 .

has the added merit of a plump biblio-
graphy. Another book on roughly the
same period may be regarded as a
'source': the first volume of an auto-
biography by the literary historian
Van Wyck Brooks 24 It takes his story
from his birth in 1886, through his
college years at Harvard and two
spells in pre-war England, up to the
New York of 1914-15. Brooks's first
composition, we learn, was an essay on
Uccello, written when he was 14; for
years his enthusiasms were reserved
for medieval Italy or eighteenth-cen-
tury England. 'Invariably one heard
of Thackeray, rarely of Hawthorne,
Carlyle, not Emerson, Charles Lamb
rather than Thoreau; and merely to
have mentioned this would have been
thought chauvinistic, a word that was
applied to me when later I did so.'
Brooks seems to have met every au-
thor of the day. By a kind of dizzy-
ing though fascinating chain-reaction,
mention of one author sets off an
anecdote or a quotation on another.
One regrets that there is no index.
With these three books, each valuable
in its way, may be classed Bernard
Duffey's study of the Chicago literary
scene in theperiod 1 890-1920. 25 Duffey
distinguishes between a first wave of
creative effort, beginning in about
1890 with such writers as Henry B.
Fuller, Eugene Field, and Hamlin
Garland, and a second, more power-
ful impulse represented by Carl Sand-
burg, Sherwood Anderson, Edgar Lee
Masters, and Vachel Lindsay as well
as by such periodicals as Poetry and
the Little Review. e ln the first case the
mode was that of uplift and reform.
In the second, separation and rebel-

24 Scenes and Portraits: Memories of
Childhood and Youth, by Van Wyck
Brooks. New York : Button ; and London :
Dent. pp. viii+243. $4.50. 25s.

25 The Chicago Renaissance in American
Letters: A Critical History, by Bernard
Duffey. Michigan State College Press, pp.
v+285. $6.50.

AMERICAN LITERATURE

237

lion. As the second was more radical
than the first, it failed to recognize
any real kinship.' Here is one clue to
the eventual weakening of the second
impulse, which in its turn was to be
repudiated by later writers, or scat-
tered by the 'emigration' to New York
of some of its own leaders. On the eve
of the 1914 War Chicago maintained
an astonishingly vigorous intellectual
life, which was at once regional and
cosmopolitan. For the first time Duffey
provides a full account of this life in
its heyday, and of the reasons why it
failed to last. The story holds a close
if melancholy interest for students of
American letters; one thinks of Scott
Fitzgerald's well-known observation
that there are no 'second acts' to
American lives. An article by Elwood
P. Lawrence (American Quarterly)
is appropriately entitled Fuller of
Chicago: A Study in Frustration. Ful-
ler was by no means typical of the
'Chicago Renaissance' (a misleading
phrase, since something was in fact
being born out of nothing). But, as
Lawrence shows, his was the misery
of the artist who disliked his environ-
ment so much that even to say so in
print gave him little release. One of
his stories, referred to by Lawrence,
describes the vain endeavours of some
Chicago artists to provide suitable
decorations for the new home of the
Grindstone National Bank. The bank's
directors reject their sketches; and the
artists' only satisfaction comes shortly
afterward, when the Grindstone fails.
This is not the mood of, say, Carl
Sandburg, and it is certainly not the
dominant mood of present-day Chi-
cago; yet it is part of the picture that
Duffey draws. A rather less bleak ac-
count of one of Fuller's contempor-
aries is supplied by John Harvey (Stud
ang). In Contrasting Worlds: a Study
in the Novels of Edith Wharton. In
this warmly appreciative article Har-
vey considers Edith Wharton as one

whose 'major achievement is the satiric
revelation of a collapsing society', that
of New York. Her problem, like that
of other satirists, is to stand far enough
distant from her subject. Her solution,
Harvey argues, is found in Europe,
where she lived for many years, and
especially in France, whose novelists
she preferred to those of England.
Harvey's thesis is not completely con-
vincing, but it is well argued and con-
tains enough asides to furnish half a
dozen articles. Finally at this point we
may mention a praiseworthy contri-
bution by Blanche Gelfant 26 Her aim
is 'to introduce a concept of a literary
genre, the twentieth century American
city novel. . . . Underlying the con-
cept ... is a concept of the American
city as a distinctive and peculiarly
modern way of life. . . .' One's doubts
are immediately aroused. Can there
be such a genre? And if so, can one
isolate a specifically American version
of it? The author soon allays suspi-
cion, so clear and firm is her grasp of
the subject. Thus, she does not try to
bring all city-fiction into her canon.
Her concern is with novels in which
the quality of urban existence forms
an essential part of the story: in which,
indeed, the city overwhelms or bruta-
lizes its inhabitants. Discussing the
'sociology of city life', she likens its
effect to that of a subway ride, where
the individual is jostled among stran-
gers. Hence, though she has short
chapters on Sherwood Anderson, Edith
Wharton, and Thomas Wolfe, her chief
interest is in Theodore Dreiser, John
Dos Passes, and James T. Farrell. For
these three men (and for such later
novelists as Nelson Algren, whose
work she also considers) the city is far
more than a 'setting': its din and dirt
and multiplicity make their characters
into what they are. The style of this

26 The American City Novel, by Blanche
Housman Gelfant. Univ. of Oklahoma
Press, pp. x+289. $4.

238

AMERICAN LITERATURE

book is a little lumpy, but within its
limits it is a penetrating combination
of sociology and sensibility however
unlikely that may sound.

From the novel we turn to poetry of
the same period, as defined in Edwin
S. FusselTs account of Edwin Arling-
ton Robinson. 27 Fussell explains that
because Robinson is 'the only major
American poet of his generation and
because his early work seems to anti-
cipate the "new poetry", he often suf-
fers a unique injustice: first he is
grouped with much younger poets
and then, in comparison with them,
he is damned as "too traditional'".
This is true; and Fussell seeks to right
the wrong by likening Robinson to
T. S. Eliot as one who drew heavily
upon the past in order to revitalize the
poetry of his own time. Fussell suc-
ceeds in showing that Robinson was
an accomplished poet who had read
a good deal of the work of his pre-
decessors, and who in his lyrics as well
as in his longer narrative poems was
capable of excellence. One feels though
that this book is a trifle overblown.
When all the 'influences' are gathered
in, and Robinson's 'traditionalism' is
docketed, he still seems a poet caught
between generations in a way that
Eliot is not Robinson's Arthurian tri-
logy (Merlin, 1917; Lancelot, 1920;
Tristram, 1927) is described at some
length in a pleasant little survey by
Nathan Comfort Starr 28 (together
with the writings of T. H. White,
Charles Williams, and several other
Arthurians). Starr points out that
Robinson 'discards the supernatural
wonders of the old stories, the mediae-

27 Edwin Arlington Robinson : The Liter-
ary Background of a Traditional Poet, by
Edwin S. FufcselL Univ. of California
Press and C.U.P. pp. x+211. $3.50.

28 King Arthur Today: The Arthurian
Legend in English and American Literature,
1901-1953, by Nathan Comfort Starr. Univ.
of Florida Press, pp. xvii+218. $3.50
(paper), $4.50 (cloth).

val pageantry, and the hurly-burly of
knightly adventure. To all intents and
purposes his characters are people of
our own day, wrestling with the psy-
chological and moral problems of a
world gone wrong.'

Robinson is also represented in the
admirable anthology of Geoffrey
Moore, 29 along with exactly fifty-seven
other varieties of American poet from
Emily Dickinson to W. S. Merwin. So
is T. S. Eliot, though W. H. Auden is
not. The selection from each poet is
prefaced by a short biographical and
critical summary and there is a further
useful booklist at the end. In his in-
troductory essay Moore identifies
three traditions in American poetry,
the declamatory one of Whitman, the
formal one of Poe, and the metaphysi-
cal one of Emily Dickinson. In such
poets as Wallace Stevens and John
Crowe Ransom, he argues, the lines
of Poe and Emily Dickinson come to-
gether in 'non- Whitman' elegance. On
one of his authors, E. E. Cummings,
Moore comments that *he is not pro-
found, and not always very exact', but
that he is nevertheless delightful and
'one of the few successful verse-experi-
menters of our time'. A less charitable
verdict is pronounced by Eleanor M.
Sickles (American Quarterly) in an
article on The Unworld of E. E. Cum-
mings. For her, The question is not
whether Mr. Cummings's notable lyric
talent has dried up some of the finest
lyics occur in the later volumes but
whether the satire has progressively
lost effectiveness and significance. I
submit that it has.' She finds his satire
increasingly petty, cruel, and scurri-
lous. One may judge for oneself by
consulting the new edition of Cum-
mings, which brings together all his
previous ten published volumes of

29 The Penguin Book of Modern Ameri-
can Verse, ed. by Geoffrey Moore. Pen-
guin Books, pp. 320. 3s. 6d.

AMERICAN LITERATURE

239

verse/' One must conclude that he is
among the best half-dozen American
poets of this century.

The history of the modern Ameri-
can theatre or at least one important
aspect of it is examined by Wisner
Payne Kinne. 31 G. P. Baker, through
his courses at Harvard, Radcliff e, and
Yale, trained and inspired a whole
generation of aspiring playwrights.
Among those who passed through his
famous '47 Workshop' (named after
his Harvard course, 'English 47') were
Eugene O'Neill, Philip Barry, and
Thomas Wolfe. Kinne's book is im-
pressively thorough, and it contains
some very good illustrations of stage-
sets and theatre programmes. Baker
himself is apt to seem a little flat. His
own writing, as quoted here, is un-
distinguished; and much of the effect
of his personality has, inevitably, eva-
porated. But Kinne makes good use
of Thomas Wolfe's semi-fictional re-
collections of Baker. He leaves us in
no doubt that Baker (in Eugene
O'Neill's words) had a 'profound in-
fluence' upon the 'birth of modern
American drama'. As John Mason
Brown writes in an Introduction to the
book, Baker's 'talents were various
and contradictory. It was the incred-
ible combination of them in one per-
son which set him apart. . . . Good
directors are fairly plentiful. So are
admirable scholars, diverting and in-
structive lecturers, excellent teachers,
discerning critics, and able adminis-
trators. Professor Baker was all of
these.' After such well-merited pane-
gyrics it seems chilly to turn to Doris
M. Alexander's article (American
Quarterly) on Eugene O'Neill as So-
cial Critic, and to note with her that,
whatever the technical prowess of

3 Poems, 1923-1954, by E. E. Cummings.
New York: Harcourt, Brace, pp. xxiv+
468. $6.75.

31 George Pierce Baker and the American
Theatre, by Wisner Payne Kinne. Harvard
U.P. and O.U.P. pp. xiv+348. $6. 48*.

Baker's best pupil, his 'social criticism
cancels itself out, for he not only con-
demns all of society as is [sic], he re-
jects all solutions for making it some-
thing better. He accepts no answer to
life, but death.'

Passing on to the modern American
novel, we may begin with another of
Baker's pupils, Thomas Wolfe. The
minutiae of his restless years as a
teacher of English at New York Uni-
versity are rescued in two works 32
whose brevity is in striking contrast
to his own massive productions. There
is nothing startlingly new in the story
they tell, but they fill out in comical-
sad detail our picture of young Wolfe,
despising the academic appointments
that he cannot afford to lose, argu-
mentative with his equals, falsely
deferential to his professor (Homer A.
Watt). Wolfe is a bigger person in
every sense than the hero of Kingsley
Amis's recent novel; yet there is a
touch of Lucky Jim-ism as we see him
here, in two books that are at once
a handsome tribute to Wolfe, and
N.Y.U.'s mild revenge on him for the
hard things he said about it in The
Web and the Rock. In The Appren-
ticeship of Ernest Hemingway, Charles
A. Fenton 33 describes Hemingway's
origins as a writer, first for his high-
school newspaper, then as a cub re-
porter on the Kansas City Star, and
later as a correspondent in Europe.
Fenton, who brings his account up to
1924, contributes a great deal to our
understanding of Hemingway. He
shows how Hemingway's style may

32 Thomas Wolfe at Washington Square,
by Thomas Clark Pollock and Oscar Car-
gill. New York U.P. and O.U.P. pp. 163.
$7.50. 60*.

The Correspondence of Thomas Wolfe
and Homer Andrew Watt, ed. by Oscar
Cargill and Thomas Clark Pollock. New
York U.P. and O.U.P. pp. 53. $2.50. 20s.

33 The Apprenticeship of Ernest Hem-
ingway: The Early Years, by Charles A.
Fenton. New York: Farrar, Straus &
Young, pp. xi+302. $5.

240

AMERICAN LITERATURE

have been formed in part by the style-
sheet of the Star ('Use short sentences.
Use short first paragraphs. Use vigor-
ous English . . .)> but how Heming-
way came to detest journalism, believ-
ing that he could never become a
serious writer while subject to its
meretricious demands. Indeed, we are
made to realize that from an early age
Hemingway was a dedicated writer: it
is entirely wrong to suppose that he
drifted into the craft of letters, or
developed his famous style because he
knew no other way. This is a good
book.

There has been no lack of evalua-
tion as far as the work of William
Faulkner is concerned. William Van
O'Connor 34 offers a tidy account of
Faulkner's development, which he
divides into three stages. The first is
mannered and literary'; the second,
beginning with The Sound and the
Fury, exhibits Faulkner at the height
of his powers in stories of 'terrifying
violence, exacerbated humor, and grim
dignity'; and in the third, beginning
with The Hamlet, 'Faulkner offers
some hope for the human condition'.
This is a useful, slightly thin introduc-
tion to Faulkner. It implies that the
second stage has produced Faulkner's
best work. Most commentators seem
to agree with O'Connor on this point.,
The main division of opinion seems
to be over the question of values in
Faulkner. Do the words of his Nobel
Prize address (1 950) show a new regard
for humanity? Or is Faulkner discus-
sable at all in such terms? At least
two ingenious critics maintain that he
is not. Charles Anderson (tud ang),
writing on Faulkner's Moral Center,

34 The Tangled Fire of William Faulkner,
by William Van O'Connor. Univ. of Min-
nesota Press and O.U.P. pp. xv+182. $4.

contends that 'humanitarian' critics
(i.e. principally Northern ones) have
been wrong in accusing Faulkner of
incoherence and shallowness. They
have failed to understand that Faulk-
ner himself is not 'humanitarian' but
rather a 'humanist' whose principles
of conduct resemble those of ancient
Rome: virtus, gloria, pietas, and so
on. In Hudson Review, R. W. Flint's
Faulkner as Elegist defends Faulkner
as a poetic novelist, whose 'bardic
tone* is perfectly genuine and whose
profundity lies in his very incoher-
ence: the themes, he argues, are buried
in the action. No less than four critics
(Cleanth Brooks, Carvel Collins, Per-
rin Lowrey, and Lawrance Thomp-
son) bring their artillery to bear on
different sides of one novel The
Sound and the Fury in English In-
stitute Essays, 1952. 35 (The other four
essays in the book are not concerned
with American literature.) A similar
admiring intensity is revealed in Ar-
thur L. Scott's The Myriad Perspec-
tives of 'Absalom, Absalom!' (Ameri-
can Quarterly). The new-comer to
Faulkner can judge for himself by
consulting a convenient anthology 36
that includes the latter's Nobel Prize
address, the whole of The Sound and
the Fury, some scenes from other
novels, a number of short stories, and
a benign Foreword by the author. If
he is also a new-comer to the New
Criticism he can find a lucid guide, by
Heinrich Straumann (Eng Stud), to
Cross Currents in Contemporary
American Criticism.

35 English Institute Essays, 1952, ed. by
Alan S. Downer. Columbia U.P. pp. viii
+238. $3.

36 The Faulkner Reader: Selections from
the Works of William Faulkner. New
York : Random House, pp. xi+682. $5.

XVI. BIBLIOGRAPHICA

By JOHN CROW

PRIDE of place among the books no-
ticed in this section is taken by Thomas
Hardy: A Bibliographical Study by
R. L. Purdy, 1 a book that contrives to
be as enthralling as it is informative.
The book, in its publishers' words,
'represents the first extended use,
apart from the official biography, of
the books and papers left by Hardy
after his death' and, apparently, much
assistance was given to the author by
Hardy's widow. The result is that, al-
though the application of the term 'a
bibliography' is a totally apposite one,
the book goes beyond the implied
limits of the term and becomes a sup-
plementary volume to the Florence
Hardy biography of her husband
except that Purdy shows that the Flo-
rence Hardy 'biography' is in actual
fact, except for the last four chapters
of the second volume, not 'biography'
but Hardy's own third-person 'auto-
biography'.

This final section of The Year's
Work must suffer always from the fact
that its material rarely lends itself to
summary. In a book as fact-filled as
the present one, the situation is even
more extreme than usual. It is possible
to quote interesting samples, such as
the information just provided (a page
of the Hardy-corrected typescript
of The Later Years is reproduced).
Curiously, one of the most striking
things in the book is the constant re-
minder we receive that Hardy was the
most thrifty of authors. Frequent ex-
amples of this trait are given. Perhaps
the most remarkable concerns Hardy's
only book-review, a review of Barnes's
Poems of Rural Life which appeared
in The New Quarterly Magazine in
1879. It was never collected, but bits

i O.U.P. pp. xiii+388. 50s.

B5641

of it get themselves worked into
Hardy's obituary notice of Barnes
seven years later, and one paragraph
neatly reappears in Tess in 1891. The
book is supplied with six appendixes,
at least five of which are of extreme
interest; they are, 'A Calendar of
Hardy-Tinsley Letters, 1869-1875'
(Hardy's correspondence with his
first publisher); six letters from Leslie
Stephen, not entirely quoted either in
the Maitland life of Stephen or in the
Hardy 'biography'; a note on the Til-
lotson Fiction Bureau; a note on the
Hon. Mrs. Arthur Henniker the most
curious story of Hardy and his only
(apart from the second Mrs. Hardy)
collaborator; a note on the privately
printed Shorter pamphlets; and a note
on the Hardy Players, with a list of
their productions.

Purdy's book had its form sug-
gested, says its author, by Sadleir's
Trollope bibliography. Itself it can
serve as a model for future biblio-
graphical investigations upon modern
authors.

By an unhappy piece of incompe-
tence, for which the compiler of this
section must crave forgiveness, one of
the most important publications for
the year 1953 was overlooked in this
chapter last year. It is the article Les
manuscrits autographes de deux
ceuvres de Lorenzo Guglielmo Tra-
versagni imprimees chez Caxton
(BJRL, 1953) by J. Ruysschaert. The
discovery of a previously unknown
Caxton book by Traversagni was last
year noticed (YW, 319). Ruysschaert
shows that the manuscripts of Tra-
versagni (or 'Guilelmus Savonensis')
are scattered about Europe in many
libraries. MS. Vatican Latin 11441, a
manuscript of 538 leaves, contains

242

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

eighteen works all written by Lorenzo
Guglielmo and Ms brother Giovanni
Antonio. Lorenzo Guglielmo's Nova
Rhetorica constitutes the first eighty-
eight folios of the manuscript. Its
colophon reveals that it was written in
Cambridge in July 1478. Ruysschaert
easily demonstrates that the manu-
script is the actual copy used by Cax-
ton (Duff 368).- The colophons of
manuscript and printed book are, but
for a solitary misprint by Caxton,
identical and the printer's marks are
to be seen in the margins of the manu-
script throughout. Duff and de Ricci
give copies of the book in the libraries
of Corpus, Cambridge, and the Uni-
versity of Upsala. Ruysschaert gives
details of two others at Savona and
at Turin. The Savona copy was the
property of the author himself.

Immediately following this book in
the Vatican MS. is the autograph
manuscript of the newly discovered
Ripon Caxton, Lorenzo Guglielmo's
Epitome. This manuscript, written in
Paris, was not used as copy by Caxton.

Ruysschaert's article is illustrated
by reproductions of four sections of
the Rhetorica MS. with the corre-
sponding parts of the Caxton printed
text. A good deal of information about
the methods of 'casting off' in Caxton's
house can be derived from the plates.
Ruysschaert also makes it clear that
the Upsala and Savona copies collate
differently from the Corpus and Turin
copies. The former consist of twelve
five-sheet gatherings and a three-sheet
gathering. During the printing, how-
ever, the first two folios, which were
blank, were suppressed and the first
gathering became a three-sheet gather-
ing followed by a single-folded sheet,
as described (from the Corpus copy)
by Duff.

The finding of two leaves of a c.
1490 Caxton book, known elsewhere
only from a copy at Ghent, is reported
in TLS by H. S. Bennett. The leaves

were in the binding of a book in the
library of Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge, with other printed material of
the early sixteenth century.

A Catalogue of the Fifteenth-Cen-
tury Printed Books in the University
Library, Cambridge, by J. C. T. Gates, 2
is a truly magnificent piece of work.
Oates catalogues more than 4,200 in-
cunables some 160 (those described
by Duff) concern the English student.
Apart from the catalogue itself, we
are given concordances with Hain,
Gesamtkatalog, Campbell, and Duff
(might we not have had de Ricci and
S.T.C. as well?) and, to make the
measure of the best, a 48-page 'Brief
History of the Collection' which is of
great interest. Oates records, on top
of English books printed abroad, 59
Caxtons, 42 de Wordes, 3 Notaries,
14 Oxford printings, 21 Lettou and
Machlinia books, 14 Pynsons, and 6
St. Albans books; this list includes
some duplicates. There is a most use-
ful Index of Provenances, a cheering
Supplement which indicates the addi-
tion of 22 incunables 'acquired during
the passage of this catalogue through
the press', 9 given or bequeathed, and
13 purchased. A less cheerful section
is 'Appendix: Lost Incunabula'; there
are 22 of them as well; one is now in
the Shrewsbury School Library, one
in the Bibliotheque Nationale, one in
the British Museum. The non-special-
ist reader will perhaps find most of his
entertainment in the study of the pro-
venances. There is a de Worde Sarum
Horae given to her uncle by Queen
Katharine Parr and later the property
of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. R.
Johnson bought, in 1510, four Cax-
tons for 6s. and a de Worde for Sd.
Who was the John Fawler who once
possessed eight Caxtons bound to-
gether? This admirable book offers a
challenge to other libraries which pos-
sess good incunable collections.
2 C.U.P. pp. xiii+898. 6. 10s.

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

243

Various matters concerning early-
printed books are discussed in the
periodicals. Curt F. Biihler deals
(PBS A) with Corrections in Caxton's
'Cordiale'. After examination of 9 of
the 1 2 copies, he finds that manuscript-
correction and stop-press-correction
were used. Biihler writing of 'offset'
from one forme on to the other speaks
of offsets 'or set-offs, as they are
usually called on the other side of the
Atlantic'. Are they?

D. B. Sands (NQ) clears up a diffi-
culty about the sources of Caxton's
Reynard the Fox. The 1479 Gerhard
Leeu Reynaert de Vos was the book
from which Caxton translated. The
'still earlier edition in Dutch', men-
tioned by William Blades, is a verse
version and its mention in connexion
with Caxton is an error.

H. R. Mead (Library) discusses A
New Title from de Worde's Press. The
book dealt with is Octauyan the Em-
peroure of Rome, a fragment of 12
out of apparently 32 pages (ex-Brit-
well, now in Huntington, S.T.C.
18779). He shows that it is printed by
Wynkyn de Worde, and not, as up to
now thought, by William Copland. It
is to be dated not c c. 1558' but c.
1504-6.

Curt F. Biihler in SB discusses The
First Edition of 'The Abbey of the
Holy Ghost', a previously undescribed
English incunable, printed by Wyn-
kyn de Worde. Biihler dates the book,
which is a 1952 accession of the Pier-
pont Morgan Library, as 'not much
later than 22 September 1496'.

The Formation of the Phillipps
Library up to the Year 1840 is Num-
ber 3 of A. N. L. Munby's Phillipps
Studies. 3 Sir Thomas Phillipps was
one of the most deplorable characters
of an age which, one hopes, bred
more deplorable characters than our
own. But, vile though he may have
been in his relations with his family

3 C.U.P. pp. xii+177. 185.

and the unhappy booksellers with
whom he had dealings, he was cer-
tainly one of the outstanding collec-
tors of all time. Though he was mainly
a collector of manuscripts, his printed-
book collection is shown to have been
also remarkable. The story of the
amassing of his incredible collection
is the story of the great sales of the
first half of the last century. The tell-
ing of that story by Munby involves
him in informing the reader about all
the collectors and dealers of the time.
Either as a work of history or as a
gruesome cautionary tale concerning
the evils of avarice, Munby's book is
brilliant and exciting. The careful
reader may come to the suspicion that
its author is beginning to feel a fond-
ness for his repulsive hero-villain. As
Phillipps gets deeper and deeper into
the financial soup and is forced to flee
the country to avoid his creditors,
there is a danger that one may forget
that every blow which he received was
in reality self-inflicted; and as he
brought suffering upon himself and
his unfortunate family, he was always
at the same time ruining small dealers,
printers, and others whose only crime
had been to put too much faith in the
word of a baronet whom they mistook
for a gentleman.

It is difficult in short space to do full
justice to the magnificence of the cata-
logue of Lord Rothschild's library. 4 Its
main glory is items 1990-2304 (Jona-
than Swift including the astonishing
manuscript collection), with 2305-21
(from Swift's library) and 2322-81
(Swiftiana). There is no great English
author of the eighteenth century who
is not well represented in the library.
The cataloguing is original bibliogra-
phical work: it does not follow autho-
rities; it is an authority.

The Sterling Library Catalogue, 5
compiled by MargaretCanney,lists and

4 Privately printed, 2 vols. pp. xx+840.

5 Privately printed, pp. xv+613.

244

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

describes the collection of Sir Louis
Sterling, now generously handed to
the Library of the University of Lon-
don. The collection suffers slightly
from a lack of principle in buying and,
perhaps, too great an interest in books
from private presses of the twentieth
century. But it has a splendid richness
of things which will bring splendour
to its new home. Mention must be
limited to such delights as a Piers
Plowman (C-text) MS., a fair amount
of Byron MS. (Don Juan), a Roper
Life of More MS., a run of Ruskin
letters; the printed books, to name
only some of the earliest, include some
Caxtons, some de Wordes, and a
Homer princeps. The compiler has
done her work efficiently and admir-
ably.

The compilers of the Middle Eng-
lish Dictionary 6 have published, after
some of their other fascicules, a fasci-
cule called Plan and Bibliography, the
bibliography portion being the work
of M. S. Ogden, C. E. Palmer, and
R. L. McKelvey. Its main use is,
naturally, in connexion with the rest
of the Dictionary. But it possesses
considerable value in itself. There are
63 double-column pages of the titles
of the works excerpted for the Dic-
tionary, with the 'preferred manu-
scripts' and 'preferred editions' noted.
There are also 20 similar pages of in-
cipits of short verse pieces. The whole
makes a most valuable reading list for
the Middle English student. It seems
a pity that some strange oddities have
found their way into the list of manu-
script collections on pp. 1 8-20. One is
surprised that the University of Michi-
gan could find no one to warn the edi-
tors against 'All Soul's College, Ox-
ford'; 'Christ Church College, Oxford';
'Magdalen College, Cambridge'; 'Mer-
ton College, London'; and 'Queen's
College, Cambridge'. Apart from such

6 Univ. of Michigan Press; O.U.P. (18s.
per fascicule).

little pieces of unenlightenment, the
book is admirable.

De Witt T. Starnes's Renaissance
Dictionaries English-Latin and Latin-
English 7 is a magnificent survey of
what its title implies. Twenty-three
texts are examined, from the Promp-
torium parvulorum to Robert Ains-
worth's 1736 Thesaurus linguae
Latinae compendiarius. The genea-
logy of every text is analysed. The
dependence of the English dictionaries
upon such continental publications as
the productions of Calepinus, Ste-
phanus, and Erasmus is made clear.
Varying attitudes to the value of
medieval Latin are demonstrated.
Starnes convincingly links the lexico-
graphy that falls between his terms of
reference with that of Johnson and his
successors, with their purely English
dictionaries.

Other lexicographical matters may
here be referred to. James Sledd (SP)
discusses No well's 'Vocabularium
Saxonicum' and the Elyot-Cooper
Tradition. A Sherbo (PQ) demon-
strates that a number of Johnson's
quotations in the Dictionary come not
direct from the sources named but
from Warburton's quotations of them
in his Shakespeare edition. It is also
shown how, by the errors of amanu-
enses, some quotations get themselves
misattributed. W. R. Keast (PQ) shows
that three of the paragraphs in John-
son's Plan of a Dictionary were in-
tended for deletion and, not having
been deleted, appear twice, corrected
and uncorrected. Lindsay Fleming
(NQ) writes on Johnson's Use of Au-
thorities in Compiling his Dictionary.

Though the title The Mathematical
Practitioners of Tudor and Stuart
England, by E. G. R. Taylor, 8 may not
suggest the need for mention in con-
nexion with English literature, those

7 Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, pp. xii
+428. $6.
2 C.U.P. pp. xi+443. 55s.

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

245

who are acquainted with Dr. Taylor's
work will know that she is not accus-
tomed to cramp herself with strict
limitations. At all events, John Dee,
Thomas Harriott and the Diggeses,
William Leybourne and Robert Hooke
all receive mention in this book of
fascinating interest. Brief biographies
of close on 600 'practitioners' are in-
cluded and more than 600 'works on
the mathematical arts and practices'
are listed and briefly described. The
book has notable value for any stu-
dent of thought in the times men-
tioned in the title. The 'F. M. John-
son' on p. 432 is presumably Professor
Francis R. Johnson and it is odd
to find Richard Pynson described as
translator of The Kalendar of Shep-
herds.

Mention elsewhere should not pre-
clude mention in this section of C. S.
Lewis's astonishing English Literature
in the Sixteenth Century. 9 The sec-
tion 'Bibliography' (pp. 594-685) pro-
vides an extremely well-chosen read-
ing list to the non-dramatic literature
of the book's period.

F. B. Williams, in a most enter-
taining article (PMLA) Renaissance
Names in Masquerade, describes
various ways of disguising names,
strange latinizations, hebraizations,
grecizations, degallicizations, ana-
grammatizations, and others. His work
provides a good guide to a curious
little corner of scholarship, a corner
in which John Donne and Ben Jonson
are to be found. Williams also (NQ)
reveals many odd things about an
obscure Elizabethan book collector
and literary patron, Robert Nichol-
son, A Minor Maecenas.

C. T. Prouty sets out in 'The Con-
tention" and Shakespeare's '2 Henry
F/' 10 to destroy the generally held doc-
trine that a number of Elizabethan
plays find their way into print through

^ O.U.P. pp. vii+696. 30*.

10 Yale U.P; O.U.P. pp. ix+157. $4.

the medium of 'memorial reconstruc-
tion' by actors or 'reporters' of some
kind. Prouty, apparently following the
curious investigations of Feuillerat
(noticed last year), maintains that 'the
sources point inevitably to the fact
that Q cannot have been derived from
F', that 'we have to do with revision',
'that the stylistic variation of Q and F
cannot be explained on the basis of
abridgment'. 'We must now reject', he
writes, 'the idea of Shakespeare, early
in his career, writing popular original
plays dealing with English history';
and 'Shakespeare, like Ben Jonson and
the other dramatists mentioned by
Henslowe, did revise old plays written
by other men'. Prouty's argument
seems unconvincing; his neglect to deal
with the matter of Alleyn's part in
Orlando and his general determination
to examine merely two plays almost
in vacuo, without even bringing the
third part of Henry VI into the discus-
sion, detract from the value of his
pleading. Prouty agrees with Feuil-
lerat in detecting two hands in The
Contention', the sceptic might find
himself inclined to wonder that two
such incompetent authors and bad
poets could be found to be turned on
to the writing of plays. Prouty's work
seems to have found little favour with
the learned reviewers.

Shakespeare Survey 7 n has three
pieces which demand notice in this
section. Dr. J. Dover Wilson, in the
first instalment, apparently, of a serial,
writes on The New Way with Shake-
speare's Texts. He provides an histori-
cal introduction (which is all the better
for his folding a certain amount of
autobiography into the history) to the
work of Pollard, McKerrow, Greg,
Alexander, and himself. The piece
makes no claim to advance scholar-
ship: it is a clear, admirable, and
most readable survey, which is, in its

11 C.U.P. pp. viii+168. 18s.

246

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

author's words, a Textual Introduc-
tion to Shakespeare without Tears'.

F. J. Patrick adds The Birmingham
Shakespeare Memorial Library to the
Survey's series of descriptions of
Shakespeare collections and A. C.
Partridge, not too convincingly, dis-
cusses Shakespeare's Orthography in
'Venus and Adonis' and some early
Quartos those of Richard II (1597),
Romeo (1599), and Hamlet (1604-5).
He appears to take insufficient account
of compositorial idiosyncrasies and of
the compulsions of justification. His re-
fusal to mention Sir Thomas More is the
most remarkable feature of his article.

Sh Q provides its usual quota of vir-
tuous pieces. H. T. Price supplies (on
top of the customary bibliography) A
Survey of Shakespeare Scholarship for
1953. Part of a book review (pp. 195-
7) gives the interesting views of F. R.
Johnson on the work of F. T. Bowers.
C. Leech comments on R. Hosley's
article on the textus receptus of Romeo
which appeared in the periodical for
1953. C. Hinman provides a highly
entertaining description and study of
The Halliwell-Phillipps Facsimile of
the First Folio of Shakespeare. He
shows that the comedies, plus the his-
tories down to part of 1 Henry IV, are
facsimiled from the copy LXXXVI in
Lee's Census and the rest is facsimiled
from Staunton's facsimile. The Staun-
ton, in its turn, is not only made from
two different copies of the Folio, but
is also doctored.

Two other Shakespearian articles of
notable importance, too important to
summarize, are to be found in SB.
They are Alice Walker's The Folio
Text of 7 Henry IV in which the
differences between the Folio text and
that of Q5 from a corrected copy of
which it was printed are analysed and
discussed; and C. Hinman's The Proof-
Reading of the First Folio Text of
'Romeo and Juliet'. Hinman has
turned up yet another proof-sheet in

one of the Folger Library First Folios.
He makes deductions about the kind
of proof-reading that the Folio under-
went. The proof -corrector's marks are
reproduced with the article.

J. G. McManaway discusses
(Library) A Miscalculation in the
Printing of the Third Folio. McMana-
way has examined a copy of the third
Foh'o (1663 issue) in which two ap-
parently unique additional (duplicate)
leaves are found in Richard II and 1
Henry IV. It is an entertaining story,
of greater value to the bibliographer
than to the unbibliographical Shake-
speare student. In a later number of
the same periodical McManaway deals
with an odd copy, formerly the pro-
perty of a Dr. Bulley, of the Second
Folio, lacking the colophon at the end
of Cymbeline. The phenomenon ap-
pears to be unique. Dr. Bulley was, it
seems, fortunate; he also had one with
two colophons.

Howard Parsons's Macbeth emenda-
tions in NQ do little, alas, to convince.

F. T. Bowers (SB) prints a lecture
which he delivered in London, in
March 1953, on Shakespeare's Text
and the Bibliographical Method. It
pleads for reconsideration of cases
where there is doubt about the status
of certain texts in the first Folio, study
of proof -correction, and study of com-
positorial habits. It is a well-illustrated
lecture and expounds Bowers's views
clearly.

Bowers deals with strange goings
on in the printing of two Restoration
plays Motteux's Love's a Jest (1696)
(PBSA) and Mary Pix's The Spanish
Wives (1696) (Library).

Bowers's Rosenbach bibliography
lectures, On Editing Shakespeare and
the Elizabethan Dramatists, were de-
livered in Philadelphia in April and
May 1954; they were not, however,
published until 1955 and notice of
them will be deferred until next year's
issue of YW.

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

247

Bowers describes in The Manuscript
of Walt Whitman's 'A Carol of
Harvest, for 1867' (MP) the manu-
script (of 29 leaves). By the employ-
ment of a number of techniques,
Bowers is able to give rough dating to
the paper and identify and differen-
tiate early drafts and revision. The
text is reproduced with deletions and
revisions recorded and the whole
keyed against the printed versions of
Leaves of Grass (1871) and the early
(magazine) publication of the verses.
Also printed is the transcript of a
small notebook containing Whitman's
jottings made during the May 1865
'Victory Parade'.

Further excursions into Whitmano-
logy by Bowers may be found in SB,
Whitman's Manuscripts for the ori-
ginal "Calamus' Poems. Bowers con-
siders a manuscript, from the library
of C. W. Barrett (but announced at a
later stage as being now in the library
of the University of Virginia), of an
early version, which gives a 'somewhat
franker text than Whitman allowed to
be printed'. Bowers allows it to be.

The bibliography of Robert Greene
has received unwonted attention. F. R.
Johnson (The Library) deals with The
Editions of Greene's 'Three Parts of
Conny-Catching'. He provides a bril-
liant sorting-out of the various edi-
tions. The five S.T.C. entries covering
the three parts refer, actually, to eight
different editions. The present writer,
it may be said, remains a shade doubt-
ful whether John Wolfe was the actual
printer of the books which appeared
with his name in the imprint.

E. H. Miller (SB) studies The Edi-
tions of Robert Greene's 'A Quip for
an Upstart Courtier' (1592) and finds
that 'at least six editions appeared in
that year'. The first edition is in two
states, differing by means of a cancel
suppressing the attack on the brothers
Harvey. A certain amount of standing
type was used by the printer (?John

Wolfe). Miller keeps his head well in
difficulties and provides an excellent
clearing-up of his problem.

Miller also, in two NQ articles, deals
with Greene's Repentance and the
work, by Fr. Parsons, from which it
admittedly derives, and also discusses
Samuel Rid's Borrowings from Ro-
bert Greene.

Geoffrey Keynes in John Donne's
Sermons (TLS) describes a manuscript
bought at Sotheby's by himself in
March 1951 catalogued with a head-
ing 'Horsemanship'. It contains manu-
script versions of eight Donne ser-
mons. The matter is also dealt with in
the second volume of the Potter-
Simpson edition of the Sermons.

R. M. Adams in The Text of 'Para-
dise Lost': Emphatic and Unemphatic
Spellings (MP) concludes: 'In any
event, the whole notion of "emphatic"
and "unemphatic" spellings may fairly
be dismissed as a fantasy and a delu-
sion.' He says that we must free 'Mil-
ton from the mare's nest of picayune
spelling problems in which he has

sometimes seemed to be strangled

Milton . . . left the details of his text
to the printer.'

Showing that there is, before Ton-
son's 1720 Milton edition, no textual
evidence for 'I should have f orc'd thee
soon with other arms' in Samson
Agonistes, R. I. McDavid (PQ) argues
strongly for the retention of the read-
ing 'wish other arms'.

For many years one of the impene-
trable jungles of bibliography has been
the ballads of the seventeenth century.
Cyprian Blagden clears the path with
brilliant clarity in Notes on the Ballad
Market in the Second Half of the
Seventeenth Century in SB. Blagden,
with his deep knowledge of the book
trade of the period, is able to provide
a scheme for dating the printing of the
ballads of his half -century. He writes
also in TLS of An Early Literary
Periodical called The Histoiy of the

248

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Works of the Learned; it existed to
review books, English and foreign. It
was entered in the Stationers' Register
8 October 1691, first appeared in
January 1699 and faded out in the
first quarter of 1712. In BC Blagden
discusses The Memorandum Book of
Henry Rhodes, 1695-1720. The book
survives in Somerset House. Rhodes
was a bookseller of the time and this
book is a rough account-book rather
than a tidy, complete ledger. It tells
us, in some respects, all the more for
that. Blagden is able to derive a vast
amount of information about the book
trade of the time from the book.

Henry Pettit's A Bibliography of
Young's "Night-Thoughts" 12 is a mo-
dest and excellent compilation. Night-
Thoughts virtually received 'serial
publication' and its bibliography is
complicated. Pettit looses the knots
efficiently. He describes forty-eight
editions and reproduces 6 title-pages.
In an interesting Preface he discusses,
among other matters, piracies of
Young (including one in which the
pirate was John Wesley).

C. W. Glickfield (PMLA) suggests
the likelihood that there are many un-
reprinted Coleridge articles lurking in
the files of The Morning Post for
1799-1802.

Robert Browning: A Bibliography,
1830-1950, compiled by L. N. Brough-
ton, C. S. Northup, and R. Pearsall, 13
is a work of considerable value. Its
main sections are 'Browning's Wri-
tings', 'Reference Works', 'Biography
and Criticism', 'Verse Criticism, Ap-
preciation, Parody', 'A Calendar of
Letters', and 'Musical Settings to
Browning's Poems'. The whole thing
is splendidly done with tactful anno-
tation and, in the 'Biography and Cri-
ticism' section, well-chosen extracts
('this is a dreamy volume, without an

12 Colorado U.P. pp. 52. $1.50.

13 Cornell U.P. and O.U.P. pp. xiv+
446. 63,y.

object, and unfit for publication', wrote
the Literary Gazette of Pauline). We
learn of a film made of A Blot in the
Scutcheon in 1912, an arrangement in
dramatic form of Rabbi Ben Ezra and
Fitzgerald's Omar, and of more than
400 musical settings. The list of more
than 2,000 letters provides a skeleton
for the future editor. Errors have been
observed. But the value of the book is
vast and its vices are thoroughly coun-
terbalanced by its tremendous virtues.
It remains, as one reviewer says of it,
'a gold mine to the thesis writer'. It
also happens to provide excellent, if
disconnected, reading for anyone who
is interested in the poetry of the last
century.

R. C. Archibald (NQ) makes some
additions to the bibliography of
Browning.

R. H. Super's The Publication of
Landor's Works 14 is the Bibliographi-
cal Society's publication for 1946, but
its year of publication was 1 954. Whe-
ther one is to regard Super's book as
extremely funny or extremely sad
must depend on one's personal tem-
perament. Landor, startlingly prolific
and given to changing publishers al-
most as frequently as a normal man
changes shirts, seems to have done his
utmost to make of himself a field fit
for none but bibliographical heroes to
work in. A large proportion of his
work was semi-privately published
and the rarity of some of his pieces
is extreme. Super treads with skilful
delicacy along the difficult path he
chooses for himself and the result is
a book of remarkable brilliance, of
interest to students of Landor, to stu-
dents of the nineteenth-century book
trade, and to students of human nature
(sub-section: Eccentric). Super has
made use of extensive manuscript
material scattered about Europe and
America and produced a book that
provides final solutions to many prob-
w pp. xi+125.

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

249

lems and was worth waiting six years
for.

W. E. Buckler in An American Edi-
tion of Matthew Arnold's Poems
(PMLA) shows that an 1878 New
York edition has considerable sub-
stantive value. It was set from an 1877
(London) edition carefully corrected
by Arnold himself. The 1878 selec-
tions and the 1881 edition derive tex-
tually from the 1 878 edition. The facts
are established by a study of Arnold's
correspondence with Alexander Mac-
Millan.

Housman bibliographers are as de-
termined as ever to spare their readers
nothing. T. B. Haber discusses (PMLA)
Housman s Poetic Method: His Lec-
ture and His Notebooks. William
White is loose twice. In a letter to
TLS he makes a few trivial points
about the text of the Collected Poems
(fourteenth impression). In The Lib-
rary an article deals with 'A Shrop-
shire Lad' in Process: The Textual
Evolution of some A. E. Housman
Poems. The writer of this section can-
not but feel that a mine is being quar-
ried too deeply.

A Handlist of the Writings in Book
Form (1902-1953) of Walter de la
Mare, compiled by Leonard Clark,
appears in SB. A search through the
British Museum catalogue lays bare
a number of omissions and the 1956
volume of SB offers some addenda
which do not yet render the list com-
plete.

R. L. Green, in NQ, gives a list of
the periodical publications of Lewis
Carroll, and, also in NQ, Hilda King
provides a checklist of manuscripts,
published and unpublished, of C. S.
Calverley, now in the Library of
Toronto University.

Cecil Woolf 's Bibliography of Nor-
man Douglas 15 is a delightful and ex-
cellent addition to the series of Soho
Bibliographies. Woolf s work super-

" Hart-Davis, pp.201, 42s.

sedes the books by C. Stonehill and
E. D. McDonald. There are four sec-
tions in the book: 'Books and Pamph-
lets' by Douglas; 'Contributions to
Books and Pamphlets' by Douglas;
Contributions by Douglas to Periodi-
cals; and Translations into Foreign
Languages of Douglas's books. The
whole business is handled with admir-
able lucidity. As the author says:
'Douglas was not a prolific writer, but
his bibliography is complicated. ' Woolf
is an admirable unraveller of compli-
cations.

Lucien Leclaire's A General Analy-
tical Bibliography of the Regional
Novelists of the British Isles 1800-
1950 16 is a mysterious production. It
amasses odd facts eighty-one edi-
tions of Jane Eyre from 1847 to 1937
and gives a list of publications for
many authors, with little comments
on some of the books. A swift glance
revealed the absence of Gilbert Can-
nan, J. Meade Falkner, George Gis-
sing, Louis Golding, James Joyce, J. S.
le Fanu, Oliver Onions, and Osbert
Sitwell. (Though Hall Caine, Joseph
Hocking, Hugh Walpole, and Theo-
dore Watts-Dunton are not forgotten
but why no Silas Hocking?) The
snippety comments will perhaps allure
readers: The love story of a Welsh-
man returning from Canada, and the
man he saved from drowning. Love
of the North Wales mountains and
countryside. The chapters bear, sym-
bolically, the names of flowers'; 'Life
in a Welsh city brothel. The heroine
is a prostitute'; 'A girl's love for her
grandfather's market garden in Suf-
folk'; 'Violence, lewdness, bribery and
crime in a Welsh village'; 'Life on the
Cornish moors. Courting and illegiti-
macy'; 'About food and cooking in
war-time, in Sussex'; 'Life in a York-
shire village. A sewing maid seduced
by an Earl's son. Grim Yorkshire hu-

Paris : Social d'fidition 'Les Belles
Lettres', pp. 399,

250

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

mour'. The judgements implied by re-
marks such as 'Writers like Lawrence,
or F. Brett- Young . . .' may be found,
by some, difficult to estimate. No
Regional Novelist, it appears, wrote
about London. It is not easy to guess
whom this book is intended to amuse
or instruct. (See Chapter XIII, p. 192.)

A Bibliography of the Don Juan
Theme, by A. E. Singer, 17 is, naturally,
only partially concerned with English
studies. There is much in the book for
the Byron scholar and there are many
pieces of curiosity for others the
English author 'Raquelollier' who
figures in another bibliography is
revealed by Singer under his better-
known name of 'Payne Collier'. There
is an interesting section on 'Lions',
Juanesque gentlemen whom we should
today call, presumably, 'wolves'. We
may learn of Hernani Mandolini's
Tsicopatologia del Don Juan* and
Singer's own description of the poet
Ovid as 'something of a Don Juan
himself. Singer's comment on // De-
camerone is 'Many examples in it of
immorality'. Among those listed as
'The Don Juan type in real life and
mythology' are Byron, Juppiter, Nero,
Gilles de Retz, Prometheus, and Lord
Ross.

The title of the booklet Bibliogra-
phical Procedures and Style: A Manual
for Bibliographers in the Library of
Congress, by B. P. McCrum and H. D.
Jones, 18 is sufficiently explanatory. It
is an admirably plain piece of work
and can be recommended to the gra-
duate student who is preparing 'a bib-
liography'. 'No effort is made here', it
is stated, 'to trespass on the preserves
of the specialist. Descriptive biblio-
graphy of rare books is left to experts
in that field.'

Index and Finding List of Serials

17 West Virginia Univ. Bulletin, Series 54,
Nos. 10-11, pp. 174.

18 Library of Congress, Washington
D.C. pp.vi+127. $0.65,

published in the British Isles 1789-
1832, compiled by William S. Ward, 19
is what its name implies, the definition
of a serial being: 'A publication in
successive parts, usually at regular in-
tervals, and, as a rule, intended to be
continued indefinitely.' It is a clear,
well-organized piece of work and
should be of no small value. The hold-
ings of 475 libraries in Great Britain
and America are listed and informa-
tion is thus available, the compiler
claims, concerning 'some 1080 libra-
ries and newspaper offices', when the
holdings listed in the American Union
List of Serials and in the Union Cata-
logue of the Periodical Publications in
the University Libraries of the British
Isles. Such splendid-sounding pieces
as The Cholera Gazette, The Maga-
zine of Ants, or Pismire Journal, and
Jenkinson's Scholastic Tickler can
now be speedily located, as can such
periodicals, no doubt less frivolous,
as Lewis's Coventry Recorder, The
Mercantile Barometer, and The Retro-
spective Review. A particular word of
praise is deserved by the compiler for
having the sense to put a key to the
abbreviations in findable places at
the beginning and at the end of the
book.

The Gregynog Press 20 is an address
given to the Double Crown Club in
April 1954 by Dr. Thomas Jones,
chairman of the press. Jones gave a
highly interesting account of the work
of the press from its first book, Poems
by George Herbert in 1923 to its last
in 1940, Lyrics and Unfinished Poems
by Lascelles Abercrombie. A 'biblio-
graphy' of the forty-two books printed
at the press is included in this singu-
larly beautiful book.

Interesting sidelights upon popular
publishing of the last century are to be
found in Edward Liveing's Adventure

19 Univ. of Kentucky Press, pp. xv-f-
180. $6.

20 O.U.P. pp. 40

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

251

in Publishing, 21 an interesting and
easily written history of the first hun-
dred years (1854-1954) of the firm of
Ward, Lock. There is nothing of vast
importance to chronicle of modern
literature. But the firm has had deal-
ings with authors as widely different
as Marie Corelli, Mrs. Beeton, An-
thony Hope, Edgar Wallace, and Rud-
yard Kipling. Tennyson, Browning,
and George Augustus Sala also play
their part in the firm's progress.

The fact that Harry Clemons's The
University of Virginia Library 1825-
1950: Story of a Jeffersonian Foun-
dation 22 can be called 4 a labour of love'
does not prevent it from being a most
valuable work in its own right. The
publishers claim, no doubt correctly,
that the book is 'one of the few ex-
amples in the United States of a full
length history of a University Library'.
Jefferson was architect as well as foun-
der of his university library, but he
lived long enough only to watch the
building in progress. He died on 4 July
1826. Eleven weeks later one of the
students, Edgar Allan Poe, wrote
home: The books are removed into
the Library and we have a very fine
collection.' Jefferson himself had
chosen the books with which the lib-
rary was to be begun. The library
grew until it contained close on 57,000
books when it caught fire in 1895;
17,000 books were rescued and there
is a sad photograph reproduced show-
ing them stacked upon the grass while
crowds in Sunday-afternoon black
watch the building blazing in the back-
ground. But the whole story is a cheer-
ful one and is in many ways of interest
to English readers, particularly to
English students of new methods of
bibliography that seem to take their
origin from the University of Virginia
today.

21 Ward, Lock. pp. 108. 12$. 6d.

22 Virginia Univ. Library, pp. xix+
229. $5.

The official bibliographical journals,
proceedings, papers, and so forth, pro-
vide a spate of admirable articles not
dealt with elsewhere in this section.

THE LIBRARY

W. J. B. Owen prints part of the
correspondence of Wordsworth and
the publishers, Longman & Co. Thir-
teen letters concerning various mat-
ters of publication are given to us.

A. L. Strout writes on Writers on
German Literature in 'Blackwood's
Magazine', and provides a most use-
ful checklist of contributors. F. F.
Madan's A Revised Bibliography of
Salmasius's 'Defensio Regis' and Mil-
ton's 'Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio'
is additional to and corrective of
Madan's earlier Library articles on
the subject in September 1923 and
December 1951. He now describes
forty-nine items.

C. G. Allen's The Sources of Lily's
Latin Grammar is no easier reading
than it was hearing. '"The Royal
Grammar'", he concludes, 'would be
a better [title]; for though Lily's is the
greatest single contribution, it is still
only one among many. The work is
neither directly by Lily nor is it a single
revision of any of Lily's works; it is a
command performance based on the
best available talent.'

Major articles, whose titles are suffi-
ciently descriptive, are Stanley Mori-
son's The Bibliography of Newspapers
and the Writing of History and D. F.
Foxon's The Printing of Lyrical Bal-
lads, 1798. Foxon's tale is a sufficiently
exciting and mysterious one. His sort-
ing out of the problems is neat and his
hypothetical reconstruction of events
convinces.

Sir W. W. Greg discusses the phrase
Ad Imprimendum Solum. His piece
constitutes a clearing up of moot
points of controversy between himself
and A. W. Reed and A. W. Pollard.

252

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

Greg concludes that the words, found
in a 1538 Henry VIII proclamation
concerning the book-trade, had noth-
ing to do with protecting a printer
from piracy, but were designed to
show that royal privilege did not im-
ply official approbation of any book.
Reed now concurs with Greg.

In Notes on the Texts of William
Lawes's Songs in EM. MS. Add.
31432, M. C. Crum adds to what was
said in Library in 1952. She discusses
the variants in a number of poems.

G. Tillotson suggests, perhaps some-
what tentatively, in Eighteenth-Cen-
tury Capitalization, that the capitali-
zation of substantives was employed
in octavos and that lower-case was
used in quartos and folios and that the
'principle did not concern the expres-
siveness of language so much as the
appearance of the page'.

In an exceptionally helpful article,
/. F. Stam, Amsterdam, and English
Bibles., A. F. Johnson does some super-
lative detective work to find out the
secret printers of certain English bibles
with false printer-attributions in the
seventeenth century.

In a letter W. H. Bond clears up
some points concerning the Library's
review (June 1953) of the Gallatin and
Oliver Beerbohm bibliography. 'Let us
use', says Bond, '[Fredson] Bowers's
book as a guide-book, not as a statute-
book.'

PAPERS OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SO-
CIETY OF AMERICA. X

Leona Rostenberg's Robert Scott,
Restoration Stationer and Importer is
a highly valuable contribution to our
knowledge of the book trade in the
later part of the seventeenth century.
W. W. Parker's Henry Stevens: The
Making of a Bookseller interestingly
illuminates the early years of a man
to whom the British Museum and
many American libraries owe much.

John Carter's Bibliography and the
Rare Book Trade is a highly agree-
able paper in which tribute is paid to
many bookselling lights of the biblio-
graphical world including such hon-
oured names as F. S. Ferguson, E. P.
Goldschmidt, Percy Muir, and Percy
Dobell. G. J. Kolb in A Note on the
Publication of Johnson's Proposals
for Printing the Harleian Miscellany
suggests that 30 December 1743 was
the day of publication.

STUDIES IN BIBLIOGRAPHY

In English Publishing and the Mass
Audience in 1852 R. D. Altick pro-
duces an exceptionally interesting
study of readers and books in a given
year of a century back. He discusses
best-sellers, popular magazines, penny
dreadfuls, and a host of furious fan-
cies. Altick promises a book which will
'present a picture of the English mass
reading public during the nineteenth
century'. If this article is a fair sample,
the book should be exciting and valu-
able. One wonders if American au-
thors know how offensive English
readers find the words c a shilling or a
shilling sixpence'.

W. B. Todd continues his labours of
clearing out preconceived ideas about
a number of eighteenth-century books.
In The 'Private Issues' of 'The Deser-
ted Village' he considers twenty-six
early editions. He is able to sort them
into their order, construct a genealogi-
cal table, spot the piracies, and have
a good guess at who (Walter Ruddi-
man of Edinburgh) was the pirate
chief. The article displays all Todd's
customary clarity and zeal of exposi-
tion.

J. R. Brown in The Printing of John
Webster's Plays (part one) uses the
new bibliographical techniques and
older skills in his consideration of The
White Devil, The Duchess of Malfi,
and The Devil's Law Case. He con-
cludes that The White Devil was prin-

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

253

ted from a non-theatrical manuscript,
not a prompt-book; that The Duchess
was printed from a Ralph Crane tran-
script; and that (but Brown is hesitant)
if the copy for The Devil's Law Case
'had any distinctive merits, they were
those of a literary rather than a thea-
trical manuscript'.

J. L. Lievsay and R. B. Davis con-
sider in A Cavalier Library 1643 the
inventory of the sequestrated goods of
Sir Thomas Bludder, a Royalist Mem-
ber of Parliament. The books inclu-
ded among the goods seem to contain
a certain amount of the stock of John
Bill, the stationer. The authors print
the list and analyse it with lucidity.

Allan Stevenson, in Chain-Indenta-
tions in Paper as Evidence, continues
his labours upon paper. His article
suggests a number of new skills which
the worn bibliography will have, of
necessity, to master.

In Deception in Dublin, John Alden
deals happily with a number of false
imprints in the seventeenth century.
Some were printed in Dublin with a
continental or English imprint, others
were printed elsewhere with a Dublin
imprint.

In an admirable piece whose title is
too long for reproduction, M. H.
Hamilton considers the relationship
between five manuscripts and the
printed texts of Dryden's State of In-
nocence. She demonstrates that the
text of highest substantive authority is
the quarto of 1677, which must repre-
sent Dryden's final intentions for the
text. The Harvard manuscript contains
corrections in the hand of Dryden.

R. B. Hudson deals with The Pub-
lishing of Meredith 's'Rhoda Fleming*.
His piece is based upon unpublished
letters from Meredith to the publisher
Charles Tinsley.

No more than brief, and selective,
mention can be made of a variety of
articles in a variety of publications:

NOTES AND QUERIES

G. Watson discusses The Text of
'Bibliographia Literaria 1 . S. M. Pratt
identifies one of the poems in Thomas
Deloney's Garland of Goodwill as
being the work of Henry Chettle. A. G.
Dickens writes on an exceptionally
obscure Tudor writer, Peter Moone:
The Ipswich Gospeller and Poet.

TIMES LITERARY SUPPLEMENT

The series of articles on great libra-
ries was continued. Articles on the
Cambridge University Library and
the Bodleian appeared and there was
also a short article on the Routh Lib-
rary at the University of Durham. B.
Juel- Jensen, referring to a mention of
an article by himself points out that in
connexion with Drayton's Owle, 1604,
'every single entry in the S.T.C. of this
unhappy book, including the two edi-
tions not created by a printing freak,
is beset with errors' and adds the
pleasing information that possession
of all three 'ghost' editions is claimed
by various American libraries.

HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

S. M. Parrish's A Booksellers' Cam-
paign of 1803 deals with a collection
of broadsides issued in time of the
Napoleonic invasion scare. He con-
siders and describes the Harvard col-
lection and also takes into account
other similar collections elsewhere (the
British Museum as 378 including many
duplicates). The 131 Harvard items are
catalogued and described. W. van
Lennep writes of Some Early English
Playbills. W. H. Bond prints A Letter
from Sir Philip Sidney to Christopher
Plantin. Hyder Rollins writes an im-
portant note on Keats' s Misdated Let-
ters. W. A. Jackson and others contri-
bute a symposium on Printed Quire
and Sheet Numbers.

YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GAZETTE
Description is given of the newly

254

BIBLIOGRAPHICA

presented Caxton Chaucer's Canter-
bury Tales (c. 1484). A large bundle
of the letters of Gertrude Stein is
printed. Sarah F. Adams describes a
copy of the first edition of Boswell's
Life of Samuel Johnson in which two
leaves of the second volume are in
uncancelled state.

THE BOOK COLLECTOR

This periodical has now become a
most important supplier of biblio-
graphical information. The continued
reminiscences of P. H. Muir illuminate
the workings of the cheerful between-
war book trade. He also has some
light to shed on some of the activities
of T. J. Wise and, another curious
one, A. J. A. Symons. He gives infor-
mation too about the growth and birth
of the Pollard and Carter Inquiry
which exploded Wise. T. J. Brown's
most valuable series of English Liter-
ary Autographs continues with Gib-
bon, Chatterton, Blake, and Coleridge
each with illustration. B. Juel-Jensen
in Some Uncollected Authors deals
with John Hamilton Reynolds. A. N. L.
Munby prints and comments on Frag-
ments of a Bookseller's Day-Book of
1622. Not the least of the glories of
this excellent magazine lies in its ad-
mirably informed and scholarly book-
reviews.

Various collections in various libra-
ries are described: In The Library
Chronicle of the University of Texas,
A. E. Skinner provides a check-list of
thirty-two incunabula in the Univer-
sity Library (eight incunables and a
five-leaf Caxton fragment were added
later); R. A. Law describes and dis-
cusses the library's collection of six-
teenth-century chronicles; W. Peery
discusses the collection of Renaissance
dictionaries. In PBSA J. D. Gordan
writes on The Berg Collection at the
New York Public Library. Bristol
Reference Library have published a
catalogue of their S.T.C. books (pp.

52. 4s. 6d.). They claim 300 pre-1640
books, fifty-one not listed in S.T.C.
(there seems some doubt about this).
They have one English incunable.

Various acquisitions to various lib-
raries are reported. - They (extremely
selectively) include:
British Museum: a volume of eight
works, mostly printed for the author,
of Charles Churchill. Bodleian: a vast
gift of newspapers, local and metro-
politan, 34 letters of Robert Bridges,
purchased, and, also purchased, a
manuscript book of Addison essays,
written by an amanuensis and cor-
rected by the author. Hoogfetoii Lib-
rary, Harvard: an unknown manu-
script of Chaucer's Astrolabe, 116
S.T.C. books (including Roger Tis-
dale's The Lawyer's Philosophy, dedi-
cated to John Donne), over 100 'Wing'
books, an addition to the Blake collec-
tion and a William Hayley manuscript
play. Yale University Library reports
the recent gift of a group of 69 in-
cunabula all, apparently, continental
printed.

R. O. Dougan writes an obituary
article on E. P. Goldschmidt in The
Library, with a list of his writings, un-
fortunately excluding reviews. Other
notices of this admirable and loved
scholar-bookseller appear in other
periodicals.

Attention must, again, be drawn,
with gratitude and praise, to the vari-
ous 'bibliographies' which are put be-
fore us by various periodicals: Recent
Literature of the Renaissance (SP),
English Literature 1660-1800 (PQ),
Romantic Movement (PQ), Victorian
Bibliography (MP), and PMLA's
customary American Bibliography.
Shakespeare studies are catered for in
Sh Q and Sh S. The present writer
bows again gratefully before Studies
in Bibliography's Selective Check-list
of Bibliographical Scholarship, The
1954 volume handles 1952; the 1954
list is in the 1956 volume.

INDEX I. AUTHORS

Adams, J. D., 15.

Adams, R. M., 131, 140,

142, 169, 247.
Adams, S. F., 254.
AMstrom, S. E., 227.
Akrigg, G. P. V., 113, 133.
Alden, J., 253.
Alexander, B., 174.
Alexander, D. M., 239.
Alexander, P., 80.
Allen, C. G., 251.
Allen, D. C., 132, 136, 137.
Allen, J., 234.
Allott, M.,201.
Alpers,A.,213.
Altick, R. D., 252.
Ambler, P. J., 36.
Amis, K., 203.
Anderson, C., 240.
Anderson, D. M., 100.
Anderson, G. L., 157.
Andrews, C. B., 173.
Andrews, F., 173.
Andrews, J., 125.
Angel, W., 154.
Archibald, R. C., 248.
Arkell, W. J., 29.
Armstrong, W. A., 103.
Arnold-Baker, C., 9.
Arthos, J., 140.
Ashe,D.J., 115.
Askew, M. W., 126.
Asquith, C., 223.
Asselineau, R., 197, 222,

233, 234.

Atherson,J. S.,217,
Ault, N., 156.
Awad, L. 192.
Azzalino, W., 31.

Babcock, C. M., 33.
Bache, W. B., 123.
Bacon, L., 14.
Bailey, M., 102.
Baine, R. M., 162.
Baker, H., 117.
Baker, S., 166.
Baldi, S., 75.
Bar-Hillel, Y., 27.
Barnes, E., 195.
Barnes, G., 35.
Barnett, G. L., 208.
Barnet, S., 94, 208.
Bateson, F. W., 119,180.
Bartley, J. O., 19.
Baum, P. F., 60.
Beardsley, M. C., 18.
Beck, S., 94.

Becker, D.W., 121.
Beebe,M.,235.
Bell, C. G., 126.
Bell, Sir H. I., 21.
Bennett, A. L., 77, 119.
Bennett, H. S., 242.
Bennett, J. A. B., 132.
Bennett, J. A. W., 60.
Bennion, L. B., 14.
Benson, C., 212.
Bergin,T.G., 81.
Bergmann, O., 100.
Berkeley, D. S., 141.
Berry, H., 135.
Bethurum, D., 59.
Bevan, B., 124.
Bevington, M. M., 194.
Bewley, M., 228.
Bezanson,W. E., 233.
Birkenhead, Earl of, 20.
Bishop, M., 182.
Blackmur, R. P., 18.
Blagden, C., 247.
Blancnard, R. A., 134.
Bland, D.S., 33,201.
Blayney, G.H., 114.
Blench, J.W,, 72.
Blenner-Hassett, R., 58, 220.
Bliss, A. J., 47.
Block, E. A., 59, 137.
Boas, G., 20.
Bolgar, R. R., 24.
Bond, R. P., 166.
Bond, W.H., 158,252,253.
Boronowski, J., 162.
Bosker, A., 176.
Bottrall,M., 133.
Boughnew, D. C., 77, 95.
Bouslog, C. S., 200.
Bowers, F., 83.
Bowers, F.T., 246, 247.
Bowers, R.H., 51, 204.
Bradbrook, F. W., 204.
Bradbrook, M. C., 89, 104.
Bradford, G., 37.
Bradley, F. W., 37.
Brailsford, M. R., 173.
Brett- James, A., 9.
Brewer, D. S., 50, 57, 65.
Brewster, D., 16.
Briggs, A., 196.
Broad, L., 194.
Broadbent,J.B.,119,142.
Brodeur, A. G., 39.
Bronson, B. H., 14.
Brooks, Q, 240.
Brooks, E. St. J., 152.
Brooks, V. W., 236.

I Broughton, L. M., 248.
Brown, A., 110.
Brown, D., 212.
Brown, F. A., 165.
Brown, J., 164.
Brown, J. M., 239.
Brown, J. R., 83, 109, 252.
Brown, T. J., 254.
Brunner, K., 39.
Bryant, A., 173.
Bryant, J. A., 53, 95, 110.
Bryce, B., 171.
Buckler, W. E., 202, 249.
Biihler, C. F., 51, 73, 243.
Bullough, G., 26, 109.
Burchell,S.C.,81.
Butt, J., 156.
Butter, P., 183.
Buxton, J., 123.

Calder, G. J., 209.
Caldwell,J.R., 101.
Caldwell, R. A., 45, 48.
Canney, M., 243.
Caplan, H., 24.
Caputi, A., 126.
Cargill, O., 239.
Carlisle, A. L, 143.
Carlisle, C. J., 103, 208.
Carpenter, M., 182.
Carpenter, N. C., 135.
Carroll, W. M., 74.
Carswell, J., 177.
Carter, E., 235.
Carter, J., 252.
Caspari, F., 69.
Cazamian, L., 10, 12.
Cecil, D., 195.
Challer, W. H., 152.
Chapman, R. W., 187.
Charnley, M. B., 34.
Charvat,W.,228.
Chester, A. G., 73.
Chew,S.C., 15.
Chiasson,E.J.,201.
Christopherson, R. I,, 86.
Church, R., 218.
Ciardi,J.,24.
Clark, A.M., 31.
Clark, C., 42, 46.
Clark, H.H., 1L
Clark, J. W., 32.
Clark, L., 249.
Claxton, A. O. D., 36.
Clemen, W., 88, 96.
demons, H., 251.
Clough, H. O., 37.
Coburn,K,,183.

256

INDEX I. AUTHORS

Coffin, C. M., 132.

Dickson, S. A., 120.

Coffman, G. R., 49.

Dobree, B., 13, 166.

Coghill, N., 86.

Dodwell, C. R., 38.

Cohen, B. B., 230.

Donaldson, A., 219.

Cohen, F. S., 227.

Donaldson, E. T., 58, 61.

Cohen, M. R., 227.

Doney, R. J., 45.

Collins, C., 240.

Donnelly, M. C, 191.

Collins, V. H., 32.

Doran, M., 87, 105.

Colum, M. M., 15.

Dougan, R. O., 254.

Colvert, J. B., 65.

Dowling, H. M., 200.

Condry, W., 229.

Downer, A. S., 240.

Connely,W.,20.

Downs, N., 204.

Connolly, C., 22.

Doyle, A. I., 10.

Cook, A. L., 149.

Draper, J.W., 88, 95.

Cook, H. E., 220.

Drew, A. P., 204.

Cope, J. I., 153.

Drinkwater, D. J., 130.

Copley, G. J., 38.

Drury, F. K. W., 9.

Cormican, L. A., 10.

Du Bois, A. E., 40, 184.

Cowden, B.W., 15.

Du Bos, C., 202.

Cowley,W.,37.

Duffey, B., 236.

Cox, J. M., 234.

Duffy, J. M., 204.

Craik, T. W., 77, 115.

Duncan- Jones, E., 134, 141.

Craster, Sir E., 211.

Durling, R. M., 123.

Creed, H.H., 199.

Crino, A. M., 122, 145, 155.

Eckhoff, L., 86.

Cronkhite, G.F., 233.

Edgren,C.H.,218.

Cross, G., 33, 112.

Edinborough, A., 103.

Crossland, R. A., 44.

Ehrenpreiss, I., 164.

Crum, M. C., 252.

Eichner, H., 217.

Cruttwell, P., 10.

Eisinger, C. E., 230.

Culliford, S. G., 134.

Ekwall, E., 35.

Cunliffe, M., 10, 227.

El-Ayouty, N. V., 192.

Curling, J,, 168.

Eliot, T.S., 13.

Cutts, J. P., 107.

Elliott, J. D., 63.

Elliott, R. C., 164.

Dahl,C.,202,203.

Elliott, R. W. V., 29, 154.

Dahlberg, C., 62.

Ellis-Fermor, U., 90, 224.

Danks, K. B., 88, 93, 99.

Ellmann, R., 219.

Dart, T., 120.

Elmslie, M., 150.

Davenport, A., 104.

Emerson, E. H., 122,143.

Davidson, D., 41.

Empson, W., 102.

Davidson, E. H., 231.

Emslie, McD., 120, 134.

Davie, D., 76, 119.

Engels, J., 27.

Davies, R. T., 60, 103.

Erdnian, D., 161.

Davin, D. M., 213.

Esdaile, E., 155.

Davis, H., 20, 158.

Evans, Sir B. L, 20.

Davis, N., 50.

Evans, J., 193.

Davis, R. B., 253.

Evans, R. O., 75.

Davison, D., 155.

Everitt, E. B., 84.

Davril, R., 106.

Ewbald, W. B., 164.

Davy, N., 16.

Ewing, A. W. G., 27.

Dawley, P. M., 118.

Ewing, L R., 27.

Dawson, C., 173.

Ewing, S. B., 124.

Dean, R. J., 45.

de Beer, E. S., 155.

Fairley, B., 196.

Degginger, H. L., 46.

Falk, R., 11.

Dehn,P., 85.

Falls, C., 124.

Denholm- Young, N., 38.

Faurot, R. M., 203.

Dent, A., 9.

Faust, C. H., 10.

Derolez, R., 42.

Feder, L., 147.

De Selincourt, A., 22.

Fenton, C. A., 239.

Dickens, A. G., 76, 253.

Fergusson, F., 92.

Dickinson, P., 86.

Fergusson, W. K., 71.

Field, A., 85.
Fielding, K.J., 205.
Firbas, J., 34.
Firebaugh, J. J., 232.
Firkenstaedt, T., 90.
Fisch,H., 16,119.
Fitzgerald, B., 163.
Flasdieck, H. M., 33.
Flatter, R., 9.
Fleming, L., 244.
Fleming, T., 225.
Flint, R. W., 240.
Foakes, R. A., 20, 98, 115.
Foerster, D. M., 207.
Forcheimer, D., 27.
Ford, B., 10, 57.
Foster, B., 33.
Foster, C. H., 231.
Fowler, D. C., 64.
Fowlie,W.,25.
Fox, C. O., 96, 104.
Foxon,D.F.,251.
Freedman, M., 149.
French, J. M., 132, 137.
Freund, V., 134.
Friedland, L. S., 122.
Friedman, A. B., 159.
Friend, A. C., 45, 51, 56, 62.
Friend, J. H., 40.
Fries, C. C., 27.
Frye, R. M., 85.
Funke, O., 27.
Furbank, P. N., 169.
Furniss, W. T., 111,112.
Fusillo, R, J., 109.
Fussell, E. S., 238.
Fussell, G. E., 179.
Fussell, K. R., 179.
Fussell, P., 170.
Fyle, A. J., 206.

Gagen, J., 106.
Galton, H., 27.
Galway, M., 57.
Gardiner, Sir A. H., 27.
Gardner, E. G., 186.
Gardner, S., 102.
Garrett, J., 85.
Garvin, P. L., 27.
Gaynor, F., 27.
Geiger, D., 233.
Geismar, M., 235.
Gelfant, B. H., 237.
Gelhard, J., 27.
Gelling, M., 35.
George,!., 141.
Gerard, A., 200.
Gerritsen, J., 41.
Gest, M., 135.
Gibbon, M., 20.
Gibbons, R. F., 63.
Gibbs, L., 185.
Gilbert, A. 5 111.

INDEX I. AUTHORS

257

Gilbert, A. H., 118.
GUI, F. C., 172.
Giraud, P., 27.
Gittings, R., 185,201.
Gleckner, R. F., 132.
Glickfield, C. W., 199, 248.
Going, W. T., 76.
Goldsmith, M. E., 41.
Goodman, P., 12.
Goold, E. H., 234.
Gordan, J. D., 254.
Gordon, D. J., 106.
Gordon, I. A., 214.
Gordon, I. L., 40.
Gordon, R. K., 39.
Gottfried, R., 76.
Graham, N. H., 121.
Grandsden, K. W., 130.
Greason, A. le R., 169.
Green, D.B.,21,56.
Green, R. L., 191, 206, 223,

249.

Greenberg, G. L., 170.
Greene, D. J., 170.
Greene, R. L., 51.
Greenfield, S.B., 41,92.
Greenfield, T.N., 93, 100.
Greg, Sir W.W., 103,251.
Griffith, B. W., 200.
Griffiths, A., 204.
Griggs, E. L., 198.
Grivelet,M., 110.
Grossman, J., 228.
Grute,H.,95.
Gurrey, P., 30.
Guthrie,T., 82, 103.

Haas, W., 27.
Haber,T.B.,218,249.
Hagan,J.H.,205.
Haight, G. S., 188.
Hall, A. R., 68.
Halliday, F. E., 89.
Hamilton, M.H., 253.
Hamm, V. M., 62.
Hammerle, K., 93.
Hammond, H., 147.
Hampden, J., 174, 190.
Handford, S. A., 22.
Harder, K. B., 130, 136.
Harding, D., 81.
Harding, D. W., 10.
Harding, W., 229.
Hardwick, J. M. D., 195.
Hardy, B., 206, 217.
Hardy, E., 212.
Harper, G. M., 162.
Harrier, R., 75.
Harrison, D., 70.
Harrison, J. L., 92.
Harrison, M., 189.
Harrison, T. P., 61.
Hart. W. M., 14.
B5641

Hartmann, G. H., 181.
Harvey, J., 237.
Hatfield,C.W.,187.
Havard-Williams, M., 215.
Havard-Williams, P., 215.
Havens, R. D., 176.
Havilland, T. P., 152.
Haymaker, R. E., 214.
Hazard, P., 176.
Heath-Stubbs,J.,21.
Heiser,M.F., 11.
Heltzel, V. B., 124.
Henderson, P., 204.
Hepburn, R. W., 135.
Hever, H., 88, 92.
Higgins, A. I. T., 129.
Highet, G., 24.
Hildebrand, W. H., 184.
Hill, B., 25.
Hilton, E., 202.
Hind, L. A., 171.
Hinman, C., 82, 246.
Hodgart, M. J. C., 10, 165.
Hoeltje, H. H., 230.
Hoepfner, R. T. C., 100.
Hoffman, A. W., 60.
Holbrook, D., 10, 57.
Holden,W. P., 81,119.
Holland, N., 213.
Holloway,JT.,218.
Holz, H. H., 27.
Holzknecht, K. J., 70, 118.
Holzknecht, K. L., 109.
Homann, E. R., 57.
Honigmann, E. A. J., 80, 87.
Hoopes, R., 122.
Hoover, B., 170.
Hopkins, K., 19.
Hoppe,H.R., 116.
Horn, W., 30.
Hornby, A. S., 30.
Hosley,R., 81.
Hotson,L., 93, 103.
Hovey, R. B., 170.
Howard, L., 11.
Howarth, R. G., 112, 113,

137.

Howell, C. A., 194.
Hubbell, J. B., 226.
Huckaby, C., 122.
Hudson, D., 191.
Hudson, R.B., 207, 253.
Huff, W. H., 222.
Hughes, J. P., 36.
Hughes, M. Y., 138.
Hughes, R. E., 149.
Humphreys, A. R., 177.
Humphreys, S. M., 235.
Hunt, C., 130.
Hunt, H., 101.
Hunter, E. R., 86.
Hunter, G. K., 95.
Huntley, F. L., 143.

R

Hutchinson, W. H., 233.
Hutson, A. E., 65.

Ilchester, Earl of, 15, 159.
Isaacs,!., 21, 85.
Isham, G., 100.
Ivanyi, B. G., 207.
Izzo, C., 122.

Jack, I., 157.
Jackson, W. A., 253.
Jacquot, J., 114, 120,
Jaegar, P. L., 29.
Jameson, T. H., 125.
Jane, L. C., 38.
Jarrett-Kerr, M., 14.
Jefferson, D. W., 146.
Jenkins, H., 83, 88.
Jerman, B. R., 205.
Johnson, A. F., 252.
Johnson, F. R., 68, 246, 247.
Johnson, R. V., 210.
Johnson, W. S., 202.
Johnstone, J. K., 215.
Jonas, K. W., 217.
Jones, A., 234.
Jones, D., 221.
Jones, E. D., 155.
Jones, G., 107.
Jones, G. F., 49.
Jones, H. D., 250.
Jones, J., 180.
Jones, T., 250.
Jordan, J. E., 192.
Jorgensen, P. A., 87.
Joseph, B., 20, 63.
Joseph, Sister M., 141.
Josten, C.H., 155.
Juel- Jensen, B., 254.
Jump, J. D., 210.

Kaderly, N. L., 199.
Kaiser, R., 39.
Kallick, M., 170, 171.
Karlberg, G., 34.
Kaufman, H. A., 94.
Keast, W. R., 170, 244.
Keen, A., 84.
Kelling, H. D., 164.
Kellogg, A. L., 63.
Kemp, T. C., 102.
Kendall, L.H., 132.
Ker,N.R.,46.
Kermode, F., 80.
Kern, A., 11.
Kernan, A. B., 96.
Keynes, G., 132, 247.
Keynes, G. L., 158.
Kiefer,C., 113.
King, M., 209.
Kinne, W. P., 239.
Kinsley, J., 49.
Kirchner, G., 33.

258

INDEX I. AUTHORS

Klajn, H., 104.

Long, J. H., 76.

Kleinstiick,J.,95.

Loomis, R. S., 53, 62.

Klibansky, R., 167.

LoveIl,C.J.,33.

Kliger, S., 137.

Lovell, E. J., 183.

Knight, G. C., 236.

Lowers, J. K., 69.

Knight, G. W., 157, 200.

Lowrey, P., 240.

Knights, L. C., 16, 87.

Lubbock, P., 19.

Knowles, C.,50,71.

Lubbock, R., 84.

Knowles, D., 38,

Lucas, F.L., 23.

Kocher, P. H., 99.

Luce, A. A., 167.

Kakeritz, H., 56, 57, 79.

Liideke, H., 10.

Konig, E., 159.

Lumiansky, R. M., 58, 64.

Krook,D.,235.

Lythe, S. G. E., 99.

Krousse, F. M., 124.

Kuhl,E.P., 100, 123.

MacCarthy, Sir D., 19.

Kuhn, S. M., 27.

MacDavid, R. I., 144.

Kurath, H., 27.

MacDonald, A., 48.

MacDonald, A. M., 30.

Landa,L.A., 163.

MacDonald, G., 103.

Lane, M., 188.

MacGilUvray, J. R., 197.

Langston, B., 56.

Mackinnon, M., 135.

Lattimore, R., 23.

Macleod, A. L., 151.

Laver, J., 196.

MacLure, M., 126.

Law, R. A., 96, 254.

MacQueen-Pope, W., 196.

LawHs,M.E., 112.

Madan,F.F.,215.

Lawrence, E. P., 237.

Madden, J. F., 39.

Lawrence, M., 27.

Magnus, Sir P., 195.

Lawrence, R., 20.

Magnusson, R., 27.

Lazzaro, R., 227.

Magoun, F. P., 39, 40, 56.

Leary, L., 226.

Main, W.W., 110.

Leclaire, L., 192, 249.

Maine, G. F., 82.

Le Comte, E. S., 139, 140,

Malone, K., 40.

141, 142.

Mandelbrot, R., 27.

Leech, C., 88, 240.

Manning, B., 173.

Leeds, E. T., 42.

Manning, F. J., 175.

Legouis, E., 10.

Marchand, H., 32, 34.

Legouis, P., 150.

Marder, L., 89.

Lehman, B. H., 14.

Margoliouth, H. H., 136,

Lehman, W. P., 43.

162.

Lehnert, M., 30.

Marken, J. W., 174.

Leishman, J. B., 132.

Marshall, N., 85.

Lennep,W.,253.

Marshall, T. F., 226.

Leraer,L.D., 143.

Martz, L. L., 127.

Leslie, D., 168.

Masefield,J.,85.

Leslie, Sir S., 15, 159.

Massey,B.W.A.,33.

Lester, J. A., 206.

Masson, D. I., 101.

Levenson, P. C., 132.

Matthiessen, F. O., 15.

Levy, G. R., 17.

Maud, R. N., 222.

Lewis, A. O., 115.

Maugham, W. S., 19.

Lewis, C. D., 220.

Maxwell, J. C., 33, 70, 73,

Lewis, C. S., 9, 11, 20, 67,

91, 96, 122, 126, 142, 143.

117,203,245.

May, J. L., 176.

Liddell, R., 214.

Mayo, R., 197.

Lievsay, J. L., 253.

Mazzeo, J. A., 69, 129.

Lind,L.R.,25.

McClure, N. E., 74, 118.

Lmdheim, B. von, 91.

McCrum, B. P., 250.

Lindsay, M., 161.

McDavid, R. L, 247.

Liveing, E., 250.

McEachran, F., 22.

Lloyd, J. D. K., 204.

McKelvey, R. L., 244.

Loane, M. L., 72.

McKenzie,!., 141.

Lochhead, M., 188.

McKenzie, J. J., 61.

Lockert, L., 25.

McKillop, A. D., 169.

Lockley, R. M., 174,229.

McLaine, A. H., 132.

McLane,P.E., 121.
McLaren, M., 171.
McManaway, J. G., 83, 88,

246.

McMullan, F., 102.
McNalty,SirA.,72.
McNeir,W.F., 123.
McNiff, P. J., 124.
Mead, H.R., 243.
Meader, W. G., 86.
Meier, H. H., 28.
Mellers, W., 120.
Mengel, E. F., 157.
Merchant, W. M., 87.
Merritt, H. D., 43.
Metcalf, E. M., 232.
Metzger, C. R., 229.
Miallon, G., 207.
Miles, B., 103.
Miller, B., 186.
Miller, E. H., 125, 126, 134,

247.

Miller, H. K., 169.
Miller, L.L., 131.
Miller, P., 227.
Millhauser,M.,201,
Millington-Ward, J., 31.
Miner, D., 158.
Mish, C. C., 120.
Mohammed, B. A., 192.
Moloney, M. F., 133.
Monk, S. H., 166.
Montgomery, R. F., 92.
Moore, A. K., 62.
Moore, F. H., 149.
Moore, Geoffrey, 238.
Moore, George, 24.
Moore, J. R., 163, 164, 170.
Moorman, C., 42.
Morison,S., 251.
Morley,C., 15.
Morton, R., 152.
Mosse,G.L., 119.
Mossner, E. C., 167.
Moulton, W. G., 27.
Mourgues, O. de, 139.
Mozley, J. F., 73.
Muir, K., 92, 100, 101, 126,

220.

Muir, P. H., 254.
Munby,A.N.L.,243.
Mundy, P. D., 107, 134.
Murray, G., 23.
Murry, M., 214.
Mustanoja,T. F., 33.

Nagler,A.M., 103.
Nathan, N., 98, 99.
Needham, G., 189,205.
Nelson, L., 139.
Nethercot, A., 224.
Nethery, W., 208.
Neville, M., 151.

INDEX I. AUTHORS

Kevin, A., 228.
Nicoll, A., 20, 88.
Nisbet, A. B., 229.
Nock, F. J., 104.
Norman, A. M.Z., 199.
Norman, C., 149.
Norman, S., 185.
Northup, C. S., 248.
Norwood, J. E., 34.
Nowottny, W. M., 97.

Oakeshott, W., 86.
Gates, J. C. T., 242.
O'Brien, K., 20.
O'Connor, W. W., 240.
O'Donnell,N. F., 114.
Ogden, M. S., 244.
Ojala, A., 211.
Oliver, H.J., 136.
Olson, C. C., 57.
Olson, E., 221.
Ong,W.J., 164.
Oras, A., 139, 143.
Orians, G. H., 11.
Ornstein, R., 113.
Osgood,C.G., 171.
Osselton, N. E., 37.
Otto, E., 27.
Owen, C. A., 58.
Owen, J., 56.
Owen, W.J.B., 251. ,

Packe,M. StJ., 193.
Palmer, C. E., 244.
Palmer, K., 106.
Paris, J., 99.
Parker, W. W., 252.
Parkin, R. P., 156.
Parrish,S.M.,209,253.
Parrott, T. M., 79.
Parsons, H., 98, 99, 246.
Partridge, A. C., 90, 246.
Patrick, F, J., 84, 246.
Pattison, B., 26.
Pearce, D., 219.
Pearce, R. H., 166, 230.
Pearce, T. M., 107.
Pearsall, R., 248.
Pearson, H., 187.
Pearson, N.H,, 101.
Pease, O. A., 231.
Peery,W.,254.
Pei, M. A., 27.
Perry, T. A., 92.
Peter,!., 112,199.
Peterson, D. L., 101.
Peterson, W. M., 152.
Petrie, Sir C., 195.
Pettet, E. C., 95.
Pettit, H., 248.
Pevsner, N., 10.
Philias, P. G., 109.

Phillipps, K. C., 28.
Pink, M. A., 30.
Pinto, V. de S., 150.
Plant, M., 178.
Polanyi, K., 99.
Poldauf, I., 34.
Pollak,G.,233.
Pollock, T. C., 239.
Pope, W. B., 100.
Porter, K. A., 228.
Potter, G. R., 14.
Potter, S., 22.
Potts, A. F., 191.
Pratt, R. A., 57.
Pratt, S.M., 121,253.
Praz,M., 85, 113, 169.
Prescott, J., 216.
Price, C., 175, 204.
Price, D., 66.
Price, H. T., 89, 246.
Price, M., 198.
Prieto, L. J., 27.
Prince, F. T., 138.
Prins, A. A., 61.
Prior, M. E., 125.
Prouty, C. T., 83, 8